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Global exchange and accumulation of non-native plants
Open accessAbstract
All around the globe, humans have greatly altered the abiotic and biotic environment with ever-increasing speed. One defining feature of the Anthropocene epoch is the erosion of biogeographical barriers by human-mediated dispersal of species into new regions, where they can naturalize and cause ecological, economic and social damage. So far, no comprehensive analysis of the global accumulation and exchange of alien plant species between continents has been performed, primarily because of a lack of data. Here we bridge this knowledge gap by using a unique global database on the occurrences of naturalized alien plant species in 481 mainland and 362 island regions. In total, 13,168 plant species, corresponding to 3.9% of the extant global vascular flora, or approximately the size of the native European flora, have become naturalized somewhere on the globe as a result of human activity. North America has accumulated the largest number of naturalized species, whereas the Pacific Islands show the fastest increase in species numbers with respect to their land area. Continents in the Northern Hemisphere have been the major donors of naturalized alien species to all other continents. Our results quantify for the first time the extent of plant naturalizations worldwide, and illustrate the urgent need for globally integrated efforts to control, manage and understand the spread of alien species.
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“Comprehensive accounts are now available on established and/or invasive alien species of vascular plants (van Kleunen et al., 2015, 2019; Pyšek et al., 2017b ), bryophytes (Essl et al., 2015), terrestrial snails (Capinha et al., 2015), ants, spiders [see Dawson et al., 2017 and references therein], fishes (Tedesco et al., 2017), amphibians (Capinha et al., 2017), reptiles (Kraus, 2009, 2015; Capin”
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“For vascular plants, the most recent figures report ∼14,000 species with established alien populations in at least one region, constituting ∼4% of the world flora.”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as van Kleunen et al., 2015
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InfluentialErratum to: Plant invasion science in protected areas: progress and priorities
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“Legumes are also over-represented in alien floras, with approximately 1,189 naturalised species globally (9% of the 13,168 world’s naturalised alien plants; Van Kleunen et al. 2015; Pyšek et al. 2017).”
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Avalos, G., Chacón-Madrigal, E., & Artavia‐Rodríguez, L. G. (2021) · Invasive Alien Species · doi:10.1002/9781119607045.ch37 · Cited by 4
Bordbar, F., & Meerts, P. (2020) · Plant Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.5091/plecevo.2020.1754 · Cited by 4
Veselkin, D., Zolotareva, N., Lipikhina, Y. A., Podgaevskaya, E., & Kiseleva, O. (2020) · Russian journal of ecology · doi:10.1134/s1067413620060090 · Cited by 4
Frameworks on Patterns of Grasslands’ Sensitivity to Forecast Extreme Drought
Muraina, T. O. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12197837 · Cited by 4
Effects of species traits and abiotic factors during the stages of plant invasionsPreprint
Vedder, D., Leidinger, L., & Cabral, J. (2020) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.04.20.050278 · Cited by 4
“Considering the impending global change scenarios and increased rate of biotic exchange, however, generalizable findings about biological invasions are still urgently needed (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundArtemov, I. A., & Zykova, E. Y. (2019) · Acta Biologica Sibirica · doi:10.14258/abs.v5.i4.7059 · Cited by 4
Klonner, G., Wessely, J., Gattringer, A., Moser, D., Dullinger, I., Hülber, K., Rumpf, S. B., Block, S., Bossdorf, O., Carboni, M., et al. (2019) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.04389 · Cited by 6
Self-citationNaturalization Features of Alien Plants in the Northwest of the Volga Upland
Письмаркина, Е. В., & Silaeva, T. B. (2018) · Russian Journal of Biological Invasions · doi:10.1134/s2075111718020108 · Cited by 3
“(Vinogradova et al., 2010; van Kleunen et al., 2015; Foxcroft et al., 2017).”
A new alien species record for the flora of Turkey: Proboscidea louisianica (Miller) Thell.
Sevgi, E., Kızılarslan-Hançer, Ç., Yılmaz, H., & Akkaya, M. (2017) · doi:10.31195/ejejfs.351280 · Cited by 4
“(van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
Survey of invasive alien species in the flora of Lozenska Mountain, Bulgaria
Glogov, P., Pavlova, D., Georgieva, M., Dodev, Y. D., & Gyudorova, S. (2019) · Botanikai Közlemények · doi:10.17716/botkozlem.2019.106.2.197 · Cited by 4
Beta diversity of vascular plants and its drivers in sea-islands of eastern China
Liu, X.-Y., Zhao, C.-L., Xu, M.-S., Liang, Q.-M., Zhu, X.-T., Li, L., & Yan, E.-R. (2019) · Biodiversity Science · doi:10.17520/biods.2018235 · Cited by 4
Biodiversity planning for Victoria University of Wellington's Kelburn campus
Forsyth, F. (2016) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17058119.v1 · Cited by 4
“3 Breaking down biogeographical barriers by importing plants from other countries and areas can result in damage to local ecosystems if those species become naturalised (van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
BackgroundInvasive alien plants of Russia: insights from regional inventories
Vinogradova, Y. K., Pergl, J., Essl, F., Hejda, M., van Kleunen, M., CONTRIBUTORS, R., & Pyšek, P. (2018) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-018-1686-3 · Cited by 85
“The European region of Russia has largely been accounted for in the GloNAF database of the world’s naturalized floras (see van Kleunen et al. 2015; Pyšek et al. 2017 for details), as were some regions in the Far East.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationCavalcante, A. D. M. B., Fernandes, P., & da Silva, E. M. (2020) · Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia · doi:10.1590/0102-7786353001 · Cited by 3
Gioria, M., Fernández-Pascual, E., Rosbakh, S., Cruz-Tejada, D., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Kreft, H., Lukacs, K., Pergl, J., Pinzani, L., et al. (2026) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.70223 · Cited by 3
“02, Davis et al., 2025), a global compendium of naturalization data providing information on whether a plant species is considered as naturalized in a specific region or geographic area (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
Self-citationDifferences in characteristics between naturalized threatened plants and other threatened plants
Zhao, W., Fristoe, T. S., Davis, A. J. S., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Kreft, H., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Weigelt, P., Winter, M., et al. (2025) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.70201 · Cited by 3
“Similarly, some regions, such as the Pacific Islands and North America, have accumulated more naturalized plant species than others, and some regions, such as Europe and temperate Asia, have donated more naturalized plant species than others (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
InfluentialSelf-citationWang, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, C.-L., Song, X.-J., Sun, Y.-Y., Zou, J.-B., & Liu, G. (2025) · Diversity and Distributions: A journal of biological invasions and biodiversity · doi:10.1111/ddi.70119 · Cited by 3
“With the ongoing progression of globalisation, the frequency of global trade and interpersonal exchanges has markedly increased, leading to a significant rise in the number of alien species worldwide (van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
Buhaly, M., Alexander, J., Pauchard, A., Rew, L., Seipel, T. F., Arévalo, J., Aschero, V., Averett, J. P., Barros, A., Cavieres, L., et al. (2025) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.70137 · Cited by 3
Li, H.-K., Deng, Y.-Z., Zhang, S.-W., Greenberg, J. A., Chen, D., Song, X.-L., Geng, X., Zhuge, Y., Li, C., Ni, G.-Y., et al. (2025) · Functional Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2435.70137 · Cited by 3
Seely, T., Fortini, L. B., Liang, Y., & Battles, J. J. (2025) · Ecosystems · doi:10.1007/s10021-025-00974-9 · Cited by 3
García-Alvarado, J. J., Pestano-González, M., González-Montelongo, C., Naranjo‐Cigala, A., & Arévalo, J. (2025) · Diversity · doi:10.3390/d17030195 · Cited by 3
Saikkonen, K., Birge, T., Fuchs, B., Helander, M., Ihalainen, J., Nissinen, R., & Puigbò, P. (2024) · One Earth · doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2024.08.002 · Cited by 3
Ebel, A., Mikhailova, S., & Ebel, T. (2024) · Russian Journal of Biological Invasions · doi:10.1134/s2075111724700322 · Cited by 3
“The penetration of alien species into new territories and their further naturalization is one of the pressing problems of invasive biology (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
Self-citationPan, Q.-M., Xue, C.-Y., Meng, L., Gao, Y., Yu, M., Geng, L., Guan, P., & Qu, B. (2024) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology13060392 · Cited by 3
Quantifying vulnerability to plant invasion across global ecosystems
Pfadenhauer, W. G., & Bradley, B. A. (2024) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.02.21.581382 · Cited by 3
“Since it has long been suggested that different climates vary in their susceptibility to invasion, we also assigned climates to the finest scale WGSRPD region in each location (Holdgate 1986, Lonsdale 1999, van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
Young, A. C., & Johnson, T. N. (2024) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22548 · Cited by 3
Global heterogeneity of latitudinal patterns in herbivory between native and exotic plantsPreprint
Guo, Y., Parepa, M., Wang, H., Wang, M., Wu, J., Li, B., Ju, R., & Bossdorf, O. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.01.24.576872 · Cited by 3
“Worldwide, more than 10,000 exotic plant species have now been introduced from their original range to colonies in new environments (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundOrigins of successful invasions
Moyano, J. (2023) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-023-02190-x · Cited by 3
Luo, Y.-F., & Li, S. (2023) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.06632 · Cited by 3
Diversity of Invasive Alien Dicot Species in Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
Verma, S., Joshi, S., & Rawat, D. (2022) · Asian Journal of Biology · doi:10.9734/ajob/2022/v16i1292 · Cited by 3
“9% of global vascular flora [23] and at national level, invasive alien dicot species constitute about 1.”
BackgroundWittlinger, L., Petrikovičová, L., Petrovič, F., & Petrikovič, J. (2022) · Biosystems Diversity · doi:10.15421/012211 · Cited by 3
“Authors like Kleunen et al. (2015) and Flory & Clay (2010) state that one of the defining features of the anthropocene epoch is the erosion of biogeographical barriers by the spread of humanmediated species to new areas where they can naturalize and cause ecological (succession, threat to native…”
Backgrounddel Rio-Hortega, L., Martín‐Forés, I., Castro, I., Miguel, J., & Gallo, B. A. (2021) · doi:10.32942/osf.io/5g9kq
“To compare the species co-occurrence patterns between the native and invaded ranges, we followed the probabilistic model developed by Veech (2013).”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- van Kleunen, M., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Pergl, J., Winter, M., Weber, E., Kreft, H., Weigelt, P., Kartesz, J., Nishino, M., Antonova, L. A., Barcelona, J. F., Cabezas, F. J., Cárdenas, D., Cárdenas-Toro, J., Castaño, N., Chacón, E., Chatelain, C., Ebel, A. L., Figueiredo, E., Fuentes, N., Groom, Q. J., Henderson, L., Inderjit, Kupriyanov, A., Masciadri, S., Meerman, J., Morozova, O., Moser, D., Nickrent, D. L., Patzelt, A., Pelser, P. B., Baptiste, M. P., Poopath, M., Schulze, M., Seebens, H., Shu, W.-S., Thomas, J., Velayos, M., Wieringa, J. J., & Pyšek, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Czech Academy of Sciences (CZ)
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (DE)
- University of Potsdam (DE)
- University of Göttingen (DE)
- The Biota of North America Program (US)
- University of Canterbury (NZ)
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Instituto Sinchi (CO)
- Jardin Botanique de Genève (CH)
- University of Coimbra (PT)
- University of Concepción (CL)
- Meise Botanic Garden (BE)
- Agricultural Research Council of South Africa (ZA)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- Universidad de la República de Uruguay (UY)
- University of Belize (BZ)
- Southern Illinois University Carbondale (US)
- Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute (CO)
- Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation (TH)
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (DE)
- Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg (DE)
- Sun Yat-sen University (CN)
- King Saud University (SA)
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center (NL)
- Corresponding author
- van Kleunen, Mark
- ORCID
- van Kleunen, Mark
- Dawson, Wayne
- Essl, Franz
- Pergl, Jan
- Winter, Marten
- Weber, Ewald
- Kreft, Holger
- Weigelt, Patrick
- Barcelona, Julie F.
- Cabezas, Francisco J.
- Chatelain, Cyrille
- Figueiredo, Estrela
- Fuentes, Nicol
- Groom, Quentin J.
- Kupriyanov, Andrey
- Moser, Dietmar
- Nickrent, Daniel L.
- Patzelt, Annette
- Pelser, Pieter B.
- Poopath, Manop
- Seebens, Hanno
- Shu, Wen-sheng
- Thomas, Jacob
- Velayos, Mauricio
- Wieringa, Jan J.
- Pyšek, Petr
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2015-08-19
- Volume
- 525
- Issue
- 7567
- Pages
- 100-103
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W1803950400
- Cited by
- 1,095
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 108 · 2023: 141 · 2022: 93 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 114 · 2018: 91 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 69 · 2015: 12
- FWCI
- 87.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- research.wur.nl
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ASEP (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Nelson Mandela University Research Repository (submittedVersion)
- publish.UP (University of Potsdam) (submittedVersion)
- GRO (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Klima- und Energiefonds
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG– FZT 118, KL 1866/9-1, RVO 67985939, FZT118)
- Grantová Agentura České Republiky (GB14-36079G, RVO 67,985,939, 67985939, 36079G)
- King Saud University
- Georg-August-Universität Göttingen
- Akademie Věd České Republiky (RVO [67985939], 67985939, 14‐36079G)
- Helmholtz-Zentrum für Umweltforschung
- Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad, Gobierno de México
- Deutsches Zentrum für integrative Biodiversitätsforschung Halle-Jena-Leipzig (DFG-FZT 118, FZT 118)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Botany and Plant Ecology Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecological Modeling › Species Distribution and Climate Change
- Keywords
- non-native plants, naturalized species, biological invasions, plant introduction, human-mediated dispersal, Anthropocene, vascular flora, island biogeography, North America, Pacific Islands, Northern Hemisphere, invasive species management
- MeSH terms
- North America, Pacific Islands, Plants, Databases, Factual, Biodiversity, Introduced Species, Phylogeography, Geographic Mapping
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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