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Global exchange and accumulation of non-native plants
Open accessAbstract
All around the globe, humans have greatly altered the abiotic and biotic environment with ever-increasing speed. One defining feature of the Anthropocene epoch is the erosion of biogeographical barriers by human-mediated dispersal of species into new regions, where they can naturalize and cause ecological, economic and social damage. So far, no comprehensive analysis of the global accumulation and exchange of alien plant species between continents has been performed, primarily because of a lack of data. Here we bridge this knowledge gap by using a unique global database on the occurrences of naturalized alien plant species in 481 mainland and 362 island regions. In total, 13,168 plant species, corresponding to 3.9% of the extant global vascular flora, or approximately the size of the native European flora, have become naturalized somewhere on the globe as a result of human activity. North America has accumulated the largest number of naturalized species, whereas the Pacific Islands show the fastest increase in species numbers with respect to their land area. Continents in the Northern Hemisphere have been the major donors of naturalized alien species to all other continents. Our results quantify for the first time the extent of plant naturalizations worldwide, and illustrate the urgent need for globally integrated efforts to control, manage and understand the spread of alien species.
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“Comprehensive accounts are now available on established and/or invasive alien species of vascular plants (van Kleunen et al., 2015, 2019; Pyšek et al., 2017b ), bryophytes (Essl et al., 2015), terrestrial snails (Capinha et al., 2015), ants, spiders [see Dawson et al., 2017 and references therein], fishes (Tedesco et al., 2017), amphibians (Capinha et al., 2017), reptiles (Kraus, 2009, 2015; Capin”
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“For vascular plants, the most recent figures report ∼14,000 species with established alien populations in at least one region, constituting ∼4% of the world flora.”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as van Kleunen et al., 2015
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“The human-mediated introduction of species beyond their native ranges, followed by their successful establishment in the wild, is reshaping global biodiversity and biogeography at an unprecedented pace (van Kleunen et al. 2015; Turbelin et al. 2017; IPBES 2019; Pyšek et al. 2020).”
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“Once introduced, these plants frequently exploit disturbed environments such as roadsides, agricultural fields, grasslands, forest margins, and degraded landscapes where reduced competition facilitates establishment (Mack et al. 2000; van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
InfluentialXAI tools to predict biological invasiveness from phenotypes: A case study in plants
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“This may help explain why oceanic islands are so vulnerable to invasion (van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
Self-citationvan den Berg, M. L., Richardson, D. M., McCulloch-Jones, E. J., Rouget, M., & Robinson, T. B. (2026) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-026-03849-9
“Introductions increased again after the 1970s, presumably as a result of increasing globalisation and resulting connectivity (van Kleunen et al. 2015), a trend also seen in alien birds (Dyer et al. 2017).”
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“Currently, biological invasions have become a significant biosecurity issue worldwide, posing a substantial threat to global biodiversity, economic development, and ecosystem function (Rejmánek 2015, van Kleunen et al .”
Vlk, L., Odriozola, I., Pergl, J., Větrovský, T., Kvasničková, J., Krüger, C., Petružálková, M., Baldrian, P., Vojík, M., Sádlo, J., et al. (2026) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.71094
“Over the past several centuries, human activities have increasingly facilitated the introduction of thousands of alien plant species world-wide, fundamentally transforming ecosystems and threatening biodiversity on an unprecedented scale (van Kleunen et al ., 2015; Py (cid”
Self-citationBettega, R. D. P., Trevisan, A. C., & Avila, R. (2026) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.251974
Rapid Spartina alterniflora removal reshapes bird communities via soil and macrobenthic pathways
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Abiotic and biotic controls of non-native perennial plant success in drylands.
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Self-citationKong, F., Ding, J., Wang, L.-W., & Siemann, E. (2026) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.70254
“Asteraceae has been reported as China's largest family of invasive species, with many of them being invasive across China and the world (Hao & Ma, 2023 ; van Kleunen et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2023 ).”
Roux, J. L. L., & Keet, J. (2026) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-026-03783-w
“Legumes are disproportionately represented among alien plants, with 1,189 naturalised species recorded globally (van Kleunen et al. 2015; Pyšek et al. 2017).”
Pascual-Díaz, J. P., López-Pujol, J., Nualart, N., Garcia, S., & Vitales, D. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1093/aobpla/plag016
“Invasive species have become components of the floras and faunas across the world (van Kleunen et al. 2015) and are regarded as drivers of native species extinctions worldwide (Bellard et al. 2016, Roy et al. 2024), rising as the second cause of species gone completely extinct since 1500.”
Nutrient fluctuations alter effects of litter diversity of invasive species on native communities
Wang, X., van Kleunen, M., Zheng, W.-L., Han, J.-J., Wu, C., Yang, S., & Yu, F. (2026) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-026-05923-4
Law of the Instrument applied to invasion biologists
Simberloff, D. (2025) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-025-03699-x
“Shinozuka cites none of the modern literature exploring the observation that a disproportionate number of invasions stem from (e.g., Niemelä and Mattson 1996; Van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
A global census of weed risk assessment standards
Pfadenhauer, W. G., Kesler, B., Salva, J. D., Pillidge, L., Smith, T., Chimera, C., & Bradley, B. A. (2025) · Invasive Plant Science and Management · doi:10.1017/inp.2025.10030
“We were unable to find WRAs for countries and states/provinces shown in white. native ranges (van Kleunen et al. 2015), it might be a more realistic approach to start with a shorter risk assessment process such as horizon scanning (Kendig et al. 2022) and then only complete full WRAs for higher…”
Peter, S., Essl, F., Lenzner, B., van Kleunen, M., & Omer, A. (2025) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-025-03677-3
“According to van Kleunen et al. (2015), over 13,000 of these introduced plant species have established self-sustaining populations outside their native ranges, i.e., they have become naturalized (Richardson et al. 2000).”
Self-citationValidating a rapid algorithmic weed hazard ranking method
Buddenhagen, C., Bourdȏt, G., Lamoureaux, S., Noble, A., Dawson, M., & Phillips, C. B. (2025) · Pest Management Science · doi:10.1002/ps.70201
Different diversity mechanisms underlying drought resistance in native and invaded communities
Shen, W., Wu, J.-G., Gu, J., Hong, X., Yang, B., Guan, K., Hu, Y., Sun, Z., Gao, S., Yan, Q., et al. (2025) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.70125
Wayo, K., Sritongchuay, T., Simla, P., Karnchananiyom, S., Nguyen, T., Duangphakdee, O., & van Kleunen, M. (2025) · Diversity and Distributions: A journal of biological invasions and biodiversity · doi:10.1111/ddi.70057
“Additionally, given the global increase in naturalised plant species (van Kleunen et al. 2015), long-term monitoring is essential to assess how invasive species may influence pollination dynamics over time.”
Alien Flora on Weizhou Island, Northern South China Sea: Inventory and Invasion Risk Assessment
Wei, H., Wu, X., & Bai, L. (2025) · Diversity · doi:10.3390/d17080508
Terzioğlu, S., & Coşkunçelebi, K. (2025) · Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Tarım ve Doğa Dergisi · doi:10.18016/ksutarimdoga.vi.1573879
The introduced and invasive flora of Bermuda
Copeland, A., & Dawson, W. (2025) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-025-03559-8
“In addition, species from Asia are well represented in the naturalized flora of Bermuda reflecting strong representation among naturalized species globally (van Kleunen et al. 2015; Pyšek et al 2017).”
InfluentialSelf-citationSizemskaya, M., & Sapanov, M. (2024) · Растительные ресурсы · doi:10.31857/s0033994624010059
Nabi, G., Wani, A. A., Gani, A., Javid, W., Malik, A. H., & Khuroo, A. A. (2024) · Russian Journal of Biological Invasions · doi:10.1134/s2075111724700334
“Facilitated by ever-increasing global trade and transport, the rate of alien species introductions and subsequent invasions has accelerated across the world (Van Kleunen et al., 2015; Chapman et al., 2017; Gulzar et al., 2023).”
A checklist of invasive plants of Gorakhpur district: terai region of eastern Uttar Pradesh
Singh, S., Datta, A., & Madhukar, V. K. (2024) · Tropical Ecology · doi:10.1007/s42965-024-00345-w
“For this manuscript, we will follow the definitions by Richardson et al. in 2000 since they have been widely accepted in invasion ecology (Meyerson and Mooney 2007; Blackburn et al. 2011; Van Kleunen et al. 2015; Ricciardi et al. 2017; Van Kleunenet al. 2018 ).”
InfluentialFuentes-Ramírez, A., Vargas-Gaete, R., Toy-Opazo, O., Muñoz-Gómez, N., Salas-Eljatib, C., & Pauchard, A. (2024) · Trees, Forests and People · doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2024.100581
Binama, B., & Caroline, M. (2024) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.11153
“The increase in the number of alien plant species (Seebens et al., 2017 ; van Kleunen et al., 2015 ) has triggered research on factors that contribute to successful invasions (van Kleunen et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019 ).”
Aboveground enemy release increases seedling survival in grasslandsPreprint
Brian, J., Shepherd, H. E. R., Pérez-Navarro, M. A., & Catford, J. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.10.06.561247
Status of Invasive Alien Plant species in Dhankuta Municipality
Shrestha, S. (2023) · Journal of Research and Development · doi:10.3126/jrdn.v6i01.55240
Fu, Y., van Kleunen, M., Ma, K., & Liu, Y.-J. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.12.08.519663
Use of a citizen science tool for the determination of biological invasions in urban areas
Botan, A. L. M., Heringer, G., de Matos, A. C. D., Oliveira, D., de Alvarenga, D. R., Almeida, J. W., Tavares, K. P., Bueno, M. L., Lopes, V. H., & Zenni, R. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.06.16.496492
“New Zealand (n = 24) and Greater Vancouver - Canada (n = 23).”
BackgroundSchoenborn, A. A., Yannarell, S. M., MacVicar, C. T., Barriga-Medina, N., Markillie, M., Mitchell, H., Bonham, K., León-Reyes, A., Riveros-Iregui, D., Klepac-Ceraj, V., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.04.05.487164
Biochar Rescues Native Trees in a Global Biodiversity Hotspot
Sujeeun, L., & Thomas, S. (2022) · doi:10.20944/preprints202201.0007.v1
Omer, A., Fristoe, T. S., Yang, Q., Razanajatovo, M., Weigelt, P., Kreft, H., Dawson, W., Dullinger, S., Essl, F., Pergl, J., et al. (2021) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1114202/v1
“(2) We tested among the species introduced for cultivation in Southern Africa how the likelihood of naturalization relates to the phylogenetic distance indices.”
BackgroundSelf-citationInvasive species in the soil seed bank of two limestone hills in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
Putri, W. U., Qayim, I., & Qadir, A. (2021) · Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity · doi:10.13057/biodiv/d220950
Bordbar, F., & Meerts, P. (2021) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-516922/v1
“Higher intrinsic resistance of tropical ecosystems could be due to “fewer available free ecological niches, faster recovery of vegetation after disturbance or a lower introduction rate” (van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
BackgroundSimberloff, D., & Ricciardi, A. (2020) · From Environmental Loss to Resistance · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-34721-5_3
Ahlstrand, N. I., Gopalakrishnan, S., Vieira, F., Meudt, H. M., Co, S. D., Rothfels, C., Swatson, K. M., Maldonado, C., Hassemer, G., Shipunov, A., et al. (2020) · doi:10.22541/au.159318399.99576221
Havel, J., Thomaz, S., Kats, L., Kovalenko, K., & Santos, L. N. (2018) · Hydrobiologia · doi:10.1007/s10750-018-3635-7
“Indeed, the rate of discovery of exotic species has continued to rise in the years since (Seebens et al., 2015; van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundArbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Alien Plant Species
Singh, P. (2018) · doi:10.15406/oajs.2018.02.00039
“AM fungi can supply up to 90% of plant phosphorus (P) uptake, up to 20% of nitrogen (N) uptake, and consume a significant fraction of plant net primary production [1].”
BackgroundGrigorov, B., Vassilev, K., Velev, N., & Assenov, A. (2016) · European Journal of Sustainable Development · doi:10.14207/ejsd.2016.v5n4p464
Zhou, Q., Zhang, H.-L., Nizamani, M. M., Li, Q., Yuan, J., Yang, X., Gao, Z., & Wang, H. (2026) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2026.105801
Mashau, A., van Oudtshoorn, F., & Moshobane, M. (2026) · BioInvasions Records · doi:10.3391/bir.2026.15.1.03
“This pattern aligns with global projections on the accumulation of introductions and emerging invaders (Seebens et al. 2018, 2021; van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
Rao, X., Xu, X., Zhang, X., Shao, Y., Roß-Nickoll, M., Tan, M. L., & Chen, Z.-L. (2026) · Agricultural Systems · doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2026.104930
Maruyama, N., Kotajima, T., & Fukano, Y. (2026) · Journal of Weed Science and Technology · doi:10.3719/weed.71.97
Distribution of Acer negundo L. in the Karasye-Ozersky forest park of Yekaterinburg
Tishkina, E., Semkina, L., Morozova, A., & Petunina, A. (2024) · E3S Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/e3sconf/202448002028
Metadata
- Authors
- van Kleunen, M., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Pergl, J., Winter, M., Weber, E., Kreft, H., Weigelt, P., Kartesz, J., Nishino, M., Antonova, L. A., Barcelona, J. F., Cabezas, F. J., Cárdenas, D., Cárdenas-Toro, J., Castaño, N., Chacón, E., Chatelain, C., Ebel, A. L., Figueiredo, E., Fuentes, N., Groom, Q. J., Henderson, L., Inderjit, Kupriyanov, A., Masciadri, S., Meerman, J., Morozova, O., Moser, D., Nickrent, D. L., Patzelt, A., Pelser, P. B., Baptiste, M. P., Poopath, M., Schulze, M., Seebens, H., Shu, W.-S., Thomas, J., Velayos, M., Wieringa, J. J., & Pyšek, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Czech Academy of Sciences (CZ)
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (DE)
- University of Potsdam (DE)
- University of Göttingen (DE)
- The Biota of North America Program (US)
- University of Canterbury (NZ)
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Instituto Sinchi (CO)
- Jardin Botanique de Genève (CH)
- University of Coimbra (PT)
- University of Concepción (CL)
- Meise Botanic Garden (BE)
- Agricultural Research Council of South Africa (ZA)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- Universidad de la República de Uruguay (UY)
- University of Belize (BZ)
- Southern Illinois University Carbondale (US)
- Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute (CO)
- Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation (TH)
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (DE)
- Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg (DE)
- Sun Yat-sen University (CN)
- King Saud University (SA)
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center (NL)
- Corresponding author
- van Kleunen, Mark
- ORCID
- van Kleunen, Mark
- Dawson, Wayne
- Essl, Franz
- Pergl, Jan
- Winter, Marten
- Weber, Ewald
- Kreft, Holger
- Weigelt, Patrick
- Barcelona, Julie F.
- Cabezas, Francisco J.
- Chatelain, Cyrille
- Figueiredo, Estrela
- Fuentes, Nicol
- Groom, Quentin J.
- Kupriyanov, Andrey
- Moser, Dietmar
- Nickrent, Daniel L.
- Patzelt, Annette
- Pelser, Pieter B.
- Poopath, Manop
- Seebens, Hanno
- Shu, Wen-sheng
- Thomas, Jacob
- Velayos, Mauricio
- Wieringa, Jan J.
- Pyšek, Petr
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2015-08-19
- Volume
- 525
- Issue
- 7567
- Pages
- 100-103
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W1803950400
- Cited by
- 1,095
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 108 · 2023: 141 · 2022: 93 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 114 · 2018: 91 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 69 · 2015: 12
- FWCI
- 87.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- research.wur.nl
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ASEP (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Nelson Mandela University Research Repository (submittedVersion)
- publish.UP (University of Potsdam) (submittedVersion)
- GRO (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Klima- und Energiefonds
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG– FZT 118, KL 1866/9-1, RVO 67985939, FZT118)
- Grantová Agentura České Republiky (GB14-36079G, RVO 67,985,939, 67985939, 36079G)
- King Saud University
- Georg-August-Universität Göttingen
- Akademie Věd České Republiky (RVO [67985939], 67985939, 14‐36079G)
- Helmholtz-Zentrum für Umweltforschung
- Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad, Gobierno de México
- Deutsches Zentrum für integrative Biodiversitätsforschung Halle-Jena-Leipzig (DFG-FZT 118, FZT 118)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Botany and Plant Ecology Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecological Modeling › Species Distribution and Climate Change
- Keywords
- non-native plants, naturalized species, biological invasions, plant introduction, human-mediated dispersal, Anthropocene, vascular flora, island biogeography, North America, Pacific Islands, Northern Hemisphere, invasive species management
- MeSH terms
- North America, Pacific Islands, Plants, Databases, Factual, Biodiversity, Introduced Species, Phylogeography, Geographic Mapping
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