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QST–FST comparisons: evolutionary and ecological insights from genomic heterogeneity
Abstract
Comparative studies of the divergence of quantitative traits and neutral molecular markers, known as Q(ST)-F(ST) comparisons, provide a means for researchers to distinguish between natural selection and genetic drift as causes of population differentiation in complex polygenic traits. The use of Q(ST)-F(ST) comparisons has increased rapidly in the last few years, highlighting the utility of this approach for addressing a wide range of questions that are relevant to evolutionary and ecological genetics. These studies have also provided lessons for the design of future Q(ST)-F(ST) comparisons. Methods based on the Q(ST)-F(ST) approach could also be used to analyse various types of 'omics' data in new and revealing ways.
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“Thus, by testing whether QST is significantly greater than FST, it is possible to determine whether there is more genetically explained trait variation among populations than expected under neutral evolution (28–31).”
From Heritability within groups is uninformative about differences among groups: Cases from behavioral, evolutionary, and statistical genetics (2024) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Under a null model in which phenotypes are selectively neutral, genetic propensity differences contributing to phenotypic differences among populations are predicted to be small.”
From Interpreting polygenic scores, polygenic adaptation, and human phenotypic differences (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“In other words, analogous measures of population differences in quantitative phenotypic traits and genetic loci—termed QST and FST, respectively—are approximately equal in neutral evolutionary models that include genetic drift but not natural selection.”
From Interpreting polygenic scores, polygenic adaptation, and human phenotypic differences (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
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Testing for Spatially Divergent Selection: Comparing Q ST to F ST
Whitlock, M. C., & Guillaume, F. (2009) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.108.099812 · Cited by 180
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BackgroundIntraspecific genetic and phenotypic diversity: parallel processes and correlated patterns?Preprint
Lisa, F., Prunier Jérôme, G., Églantine, M.-B., Nicolas, C., Charlotte, V., Géraldine, L., & Simon, B. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/288357 · Cited by 11
“…divergent natural selection in shaping the distribution of 42 phenotypic traits across landscapes -and hence phenotypic β-diversity- has been the focus of 43 studies combining quantitative genetics and experimental approaches (Kawecki and Ebert 44 2004, Leinonen et al. 2013, Blanquart et al. 2013).”
BackgroundPieri, A., Beleggia, R., Gioia, T., Tong, H., Vittori, V. D., Frascarelli, G., Bitocchi, E., Nanni, L., Bellucci, E., Fiorani, F., et al. (2024) · The Plant Cell · doi:10.1093/plcell/koae202 · Cited by 10
“Studying the transcriptome as a plastic phenotype is a powerful approach to understand the molecular basis of plasticity and its evolutionary potential (Leinonen et al. 2013; Oostra et al. 2018).”
BackgroundProber, S., Potts, B., Harrison, P., Wiehl, G., Bailey, T. G., Silva, J. C. E., Price, M., Speijers, J., Steane, D., & Vaillancourt, R. (2022) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants11141846 · Cited by 10
“The significant population differentiation detected in quantitative traits in the two species was also evident in molecular data where low, but significant, genome-wide SNP differentiation (FST) was detected among the populations sampled within both species.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPatterns and determinants of phenotypic variability within two invasive crayfish species
Lang, I., Paz-Vinas, I., Cucherousset, J., & Loot, G. (2021) · Freshwater Biology · doi:10.1111/fwb.13792 · Cited by 10
Genetic structure, clonality and diversity in commercial pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) cultivars
Shahsavari, S., Noormohammadi, Z., Sheidai, M., Farahani, F., & Vazifeshenas, M. (2021) · Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution · doi:10.1007/s10722-021-01167-8 · Cited by 10
Life story of Tunisian durum wheat landraces revealed by their genetic and phenotypic diversity
Krima, S. B., Slim, A., Gélisse, S., Kouki, H., Nadaud, I., Sourdille, P., Yahyaoui, A., M'Barek, S. B., Suffert, F., & Marcel, T. (2020) · doi:10.1101/2020.08.14.251157 · Cited by 10
Chavarría-Pizarro, T., Gómez, J. P., Ungvari-Martin, J., Bay, R., Miyamoto, M., & Kimball, R. (2019) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.5826 · Cited by 10
Cruzan, M. (2019) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biz051 · Cited by 10
“Simply showing that characteristics of the invasive plants differ from European varieties would not be adequate to demonstrate evolutionary adaptation to the Oregon climate, because such changes could be due to accidents of introduction and early survival (genetic drift; Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundThe Effects of Demography and Genetics on the Neutral Distribution of Quantitative Traits
Koch, E. M. (2019) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.118.301839 · Cited by 9
“Current goodness-of-fit tests either compare QST to an empirical distribution of FST values or to a χ2 distribution (Leinonen et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMethodRavindran, S. P., Herrmann, M., & Cordellier, M. (2019) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.4894 · Cited by 10
Smaragdov, M., Kudinov, A., & Uimari, P. (2018) · Agricultural and Food Science · doi:10.23986/afsci.69777 · Cited by 10
“The methods and issues associated with the estimation of genetic diversity using Fst statistics have been covered in many excellent reviews (e.g. Weir and Cockerham 1984, Weir and Hill 2002, Holsinger and Weir 2009, Meirmans and Hedrick 2011, Leinonen et al. 2013).”
MethodBouteiller, X., Barraquand, F., Garnier-Géré, P., Harmand, N., Laizet, Y., Raimbault, A., Ségura, R., Lassois, L., Monty, A., Verdu, C., et al. (2018) · Plant Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.5091/plecevo.2018.1403 · Cited by 10
“To avoid these biases, a robust 20 populations of half sibs experiment was designed, which was suitable to estimate additive variance and QST (O’Hara & Merilä 2005, Goudet & Büchi 2006, Whitlock 2008, Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCondón, F., Jaurena, M., Reyno, R., Otaño, C., & Lattanzi, F. A. (2017) · doi:10.1111/gfs.12275 · Cited by 10
Tinnert, J., & Forsman, A. (2017) · Biological Journal of the Linnean Society · doi:10.1093/biolinnean/blx055 · Cited by 10
Ojeda, F., van der Niet, T., Malan, M., Midgley, J., & Segarra-Moragues, J. (2016) · doi:10.1111/boj.12395 · Cited by 10
Pollen and anther morphological variation in rye was shaped by domestication
Waesch, C., Gao, Y., Koch, N., Gaede, N., Hornick, T., Dusny, C., Fuchs, J., Börner, A., Himmelbach, A., Mascher, M., et al. (2025) · BMC Plant Biology · doi:10.1186/s12870-025-06416-x · Cited by 9
“This analysis serves to investigate if the observed phenotypic differences between the two subpopulations was caused by genetic drift ( P ST = F ST ) or selection ( P ST > F ST ) [41].”
León, R., & Laat, R. (2021) · Weed research (Print) · doi:10.1111/wre.12492 · Cited by 9
Phenotypic flexibility in background-mediated color change in sticklebacks
Tibblin, P., Hall, M., Svensson, P. A., Merilä, J., & Forsman, A. (2020) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/araa041 · Cited by 13
Self-citationThe Genetic Basis of Plant Functional Traits and the Evolution of Plant-Environment Interactions
Pereira, C. G., & Marais, D. L. D. (2019) · International Journal of Plant Sciences · doi:10.1086/706190 · Cited by 13
“Interestingly,ERwas identified in a genetic screen for factors associated with drought resistance in cotton, even though water limitation is not usually correlated with leaf thickness (Levi et al. 2009).”
BackgroundNovaes, C. R. D. B., Mota, E. E. S., Novaes, E., Telles, M. P. D. C., & Chaves, L. (2018) · Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura · doi:10.1590/0100-29452018843 · Cited by 9
“The PST parameter, although containing environmental effects, can be considered as a first approximation of the analogous parameter QST, which measures the genotypic divergence of quantitative traits (LEINONEN et al., 2013; RAEYMAEKERS et al., 2007).”
Cubry, P., Scotti, I., Oddou‐Muratorio, S., & Lefèvre, F. (2017) · Molecular Ecology Resources · doi:10.1111/1755-0998.12693 · Cited by 7
Parsons, P. J., Bridle, J. R., Rüber, L., & Genner, M. J. (2017) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.3311 · Cited by 10
“Another consideration is that we employed QST- FST comparisons, that can be informative for highlighting cases of selection (Leinonen et al., 2013), but can be subject to bias, such as in the mutation rate of molecular markers employed (e.g., Edelaar, Burraco, & Gomez- Mestre, 2011).”
MethodStrandh, M., Jönsson, J., Madjidian, J. A., Hansson, B., & Lankinen, Å. (2017) · INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL PLANT SCIENCES · doi:10.1086/693464 · Cited by 9
“…be evolutionary stable (Goodwillie et al. 2005; Harder et al. 2008; Johnston et al. 2009; Winn et al. 2011; Igic and Busch 2013; Devaux et al. 2014a), such as when delayed selfing mechanisms provide reproductive assurance against unpredictable cross-pollination (Lloyd 1979; Busch and Delph 2012).”
BackgroundLocal adaptation drives thermal tolerance among parasite populations: a common garden experiment
Mazé-Guilmo, E., Blanchet, S., Rey, O., Canto, N., & Loot, G. (2016) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0587 · Cited by 9
Santamarina, C., Mathieu, L., Bitocchi, E., Pieri, A., Bellucci, E., Vittori, V. D., Susek, K., Scossa, F., Nanni, L., & Papa, R. (2025) · Trends in Plant Science · doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2025.04.008 · Cited by 14
Franzoni, J., Astuti, G., & Peruzzi, L. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12101355 · Cited by 8
Schmid, M., Rueffler, C., Lehmann, L., & Mullon, C. (2023) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/727483 · Cited by 8
Genomic Traces of the Fruit Fly Anastrepha obliqua Associated with Its Polyphagous Nature
Aguirre-Ramirez, E., Velasco‐Cuervo, S. M., & Toro‐Perea, N. (2021) · Insects · doi:10.3390/insects12121116 · Cited by 9
Multi-Approach Analysis Reveals Local Adaptation in a Widespread Forest Tree of Reunion Island
Garot, E., Dussert, S., Domergue, F., Joët, T., Fock-Bastide, I., Combes, M., & Lashermes, P. (2020) · Plant and Cell Physiology · doi:10.1093/pcp/pcaa160 · Cited by 12
“Local adaptation in forest trees has traditionally been investigated through in situ characterization, provenance experiments (i.e. common garden experiments), reciprocal transplants and population genetics (Kawecki and Ebert 2004, Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundEvolution: Is Recombination Rate Variation Adaptive?
Dumont, B. L. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.061 · Cited by 8
Adaptive phenotypic divergence in an annual grass differs across biotic contextsPreprint
O'Brien, A. M., Sawers, R. J. H., Strauss, S. Y., & Ross-Ibarra, J. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/382770 · Cited by 3
Simeão, R., Valle, C. B., & de Resende, M. D. V. (2017) · doi:10.1111/pbr.12429 · Cited by 8
Adaptive divergence in embryonic thermal plasticity among Atlantic salmon populations
Côte, J., Roussel, J., Cam, S. L., Guillaume, F., & Evanno, G. (2016) · Journal of Evolutionary Biology · doi:10.1111/jeb.12896 · Cited by 8
Yuan, S., Ma, L.-N., Guo, C., & Wang, R.-Z. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep26288 · Cited by 8
Thompson, M., Réale, D., Chenet, B., Delaitre, S., Fargevieille, A., Romans, M., Caro, S. P., & Charmantier, A. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.08.27.609854 · Cited by 7
“…populations that contribute to phenotypic differences can also arise via neutral evolutionary processes like genetic drift or founder effects (Leinonen et al. 2013), and differentiating these processes from local adaptation is informative to evaluate whether populations are adapting in pace…”
Tissue and toxin-specific divergent evolution in plant defense.
López-Goldar, X., & Agrawal, A. A. (2023) · Evolution; international journal of organic evolution · doi:10.1093/evolut/qpad155 · Cited by 7
“F ST test was performed to compare the tissue-specific (including whole plant level, as above) genetic differentiation of populations at multiple-trait level using the 28 individual cardenolides under the null hypothesis of Q ST = F ST (Leinonen et al., 2013; Martin et al., 2008).”
Trait evolution during a rapid global weed invasion despite little genetic differentiation
Irimia, R.-E., Montesinos, D., Chaturvedi, A., Sanders, I., Hierro, J., Sotes, G. J., Cavieres, L., Eren, Ö., Lortie, C., French, K., et al. (2023) · Evolutionary Applications · doi:10.1111/eva.13548 · Cited by 7
“A powerful approach to study adaptive evolutionary changes in populations of invasive species is to compare the genetically determined quantitative trait differentiation (termed QST, Spitze, 1993; Leinonen et al., 2013) with neutral genetic differentiation (FST, Wright, 1951).”
BackgroundInfluentialSalloum, P. M., Lavery, S. D., de Villemereuil, P., & Santure, A. (2022) · Evolution; international journal of organic evolution · doi:10.1093/evolut/qpac011 · Cited by 7
de Castro, R. S., Gonçalves, A. R., Braga-Ferreira, R. D. S., Telles, M. P. D. C., & Chaves, L. (2021) · Pesquisa Agropecuária Tropical · doi:10.1590/1983-40632021v5167292 · Cited by 7
Evidence of local adaptation despite strong drift in a Neotropical patchily distributed bromeliad
Leal, B. S. S., Chaves, C. J. N., Graciano, V. A., Boury, C., Pillaca-Huacre, L., Heuertz, M., & Palma‐Silva, C. (2021) · Heredity · doi:10.1038/s41437-021-00442-9 · Cited by 13
“…divergence (PST) can be compared to neutral genetic divergence (FST) to give insights into the degree of differentiation caused by selective versus neutral processes (PST–FST comparisons; Brommer 2011; Leinonen et al. 2013), particularly when controlling for environmental variation is feasible.”
BackgroundInfluentialSmall-scale population divergence is driven by local larval environment in a temperate amphibian
Rödin‐Mörch, P., Palejowski, H., Cortázar‐Chinarro, M., Kärvemo, S., Richter‐Boix, À., Höglund, ., & Laurila, A. (2020) · Heredity · doi:10.1038/s41437-020-00371-z · Cited by 9
“Indeed, in many cases where molecular methods have suggested low divergence, phenotypic methods have indicated considerable adaptive divergence (Leinonen et al. 2013; Savolainen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundChu, V. M., Sallum, M. A., Moore, T., Emerson, K., Schlichting, C., & Conn, J. (2020) · Parasites & Vectors · doi:10.1186/s13071-020-3924-7 · Cited by 7
Dynamic Phytomeric Growth Contributes to Local Adaptation in Barley
Huang, Y.-Y., Maurer, A., Giehl, R., Zhao, S.-S., Golan, G., Thirulogachandar, V., Li, G., Zhao, Y.-S., Trautewig, C., Himmelbach, A., et al. (2024) · Molecular biology and evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msae011 · Cited by 6
“F ST comparison (Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundLatrille, T., Bastian, M., Gaboriau, T., & Salamin, N. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.10.02.559886 · Cited by 6
Ramírez-Valiente, J., Solé-Medina, A., Robledo-Arnuncio, J., & Ortego, J. (2022) · Molecular Ecology · doi:10.1111/mec.16816 · Cited by 6
“…leaf economics spectrum, local adaptation patterns of genetic divergence among populations are also largely impacted by neutral demographic processes, such as range shifts, gene flow and genetic drift, thus confounding inference of selection (Leinonen et al., 2013; Villemereuil et al., 2022).”
BackgroundRodríguez‐Cajarville, M. J., Campagna, L., Lima-Rezende, C. A., Carboni, M., Tubaro, P., & Cabanne, G. (2022) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.14449 · Cited by 6
“Because there is no clear consensus about how to estimate the null distribution of FST values of neutral markers (Brommer, 2011; Leinonen et al., 2013), we decided to compare PST to the mean FST and its 95% CI, and to the single- locus FST 95% distribution.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBajpai, P. K., Weiss, H., Dvir, G., Hanin, N., Wasserstrom, H., & Barazani, O. (2022) · BMC Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1186/s12862-022-01996-w · Cited by 6
“Furthermore, the QST approach is more straightforward in comparison to other natural selection prediction methods where null (neutral) distributions are dependent on multiple assumptions [16].”
MethodResultInfluentialValencia-Montoya, W. A., Flaven, É., Pouzadoux, J., Imbert, E., & Cheptou, P. (2021) · Evolution; international journal of organic evolution · doi:10.1111/evo.14364 · Cited by 6
Transcriptome and Metabolite Insights into Domestication Process of Cultivated Barley in China
Zhou, Y., Lu, G., Sun, G., Sun, D.-K., & Ren, X.-F. (2021) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants11020209 · Cited by 6
“Qst–Fst Comparison We used a “Qst–Fst Comparison” strategy to identify the selective SNPs and divergent metabolites caused by selection rather than neutral processes [66].”
MethodGeorge, J.-P., Schueler, S., Grabner, M., Karanitsch-Ackerl, S., Mayer, K., Stierschneider, M., Weissenbacher, L., & van Loo, M. (2021) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.7654 · Cited by 6
“While such trait– climate associations can indeed suggest patterns of local adaptation due to spatially varying selection (Leinonen et al., 2013), their interpretation can still be doubtful, because the climatic clines at which provenances occur often show parallelism with recolonization routes…”
BackgroundCampbell, M. T., Hu, H., Yeats, T. H., Caffe, M., Gutiérrez, L., Smith, K. P., Sorrells, M. E., Gore, M. A., & Jannink, J. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.06.190512 · Cited by 3
“, F ) for all loci (Storz 2002; Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundResultMadaj, A.-M., Michalski, S. G., & Durka, W. (2020) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.3093 · Cited by 6
“Finally, to examine whether phenotypic differences are likely due to natural selection or in line with neutral expectations, an FST-PST comparison (Leinonen et al. 2013) was executed for each species by testing whether the 95% Bayesian credible intervals of phenotypic divergence PST for each…”
MethodAnthropometric study of philtrum (face) and other nasal parameters in Nepal
Yadav, S., Malla, B. K., Srivastava, A., Timsina, R. P., Srivastava, N., & Kumar, A. (2018) · International Journal of Modern Anthropology · doi:10.4314/ijma.v2i11.8 · Cited by 6
Iglesias, P., Soto, I. M., Soto, E. M., Calderón, L., Hurtado, J., & Hasson, E. (2018) · Biological Journal of the Linnean Society · doi:10.1093/biolinnean/bly108 · Cited by 6
Differential Rates of Male Genital Evolution in Sibling Species of Drosophila
Stefanini, M. I., Carmona, P. S. M., Iglesias, P., Soto, E. M., & Soto, I. M. (2018) · Evolutionary biology · doi:10.1007/s11692-018-9444-0 · Cited by 6
Ecosystem Consequences of Plant Genetic Divergence with Colonization of New Habitat
Mueller, L., Breza, L. C., Genung, M., Giardina, C., Stone, N. E., Sidak-Loftis, L. C., Busch, J. D., Wagner, D., Bailey, J., & Schweitzer, J. (2017) · doi:10.1002/ecs2.1743 · Cited by 6
“Comparison of molecular variance at neutral loci (FST) and quantitative trait variance (QST) can discriminate between selection and drift as the driving evolutionary force (Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundRogell, B., Dannewitz, J., Palm, S., Dahl, J., Petersson, E., & Laurila, A. (2013) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.579 · Cited by 6
“It is well established that antagonistic genotype by environment interactions for fitness can create adaptive spatial variation, where different genotypes are favored under different environmental conditions (Merila and Crnokrak 2001; Kawecki and Ebert 2004; Leinonen et al. 2008, 2013).”
BackgroundGreen revolution gene drives adaptation of Arabidopsis to the extremely high altitude
Hou, X., Xu, Y., Sun, T., Gong, Y.-B., Li, X., Jin, G.-T., Bian, Y.-T., Liu, Y., Jiang, J., Niu, X., et al. (2025) · Science China Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11427-024-2769-x · Cited by 4
“F ST test (Leinonen et al., 2013), the quantitative trait locus (QTL) sign test (Orr, 1998), and the recently developed v -test, of which directional selection could be indicated when high parental divergence is compared to F 2 phenotypic variance (Fraser, 2020).”
How knowledge of pathogen population biology informs management of Septoria nodorum blotch on wheat
McDonald, B. A. (2025) · European journal of plant pathology · doi:10.1007/s10658-024-02996-w · Cited by 5
“A Q ST /F ST comparison (Leinonen et al., 2013) was conducted using 164 P. nodorum strains coming from eight naturally infected wheat fields distributed around the world (Pereira et al., 2020a).”
de Souza, L. P., Bitocchi, E., Papa, R., Tohge, T., & Fernie, A. R. (2023) · The Plant Journal · doi:10.1111/tpj.16277 · Cited by 7
Fernández-Meirama, M., Rolán-Alvarez, E., & Carvajal-Rodríguez, A. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.680792 · Cited by 5
“In addition, we measured the genetic differentiation between habitats by means of the FST (Wright, 1951) and QST indices (Leinonen et al., 2013).”
MethodFrom communities to individuals: Using remote sensing to inform and monitor woodland restoration
Harrison, P., Camarretta, N., Krisanski, S., Bailey, T. G., Davidson, N., Bain, G. C., Hamer, R., Gardiner, R., Proft, K. M., Taskhiri, M., et al. (2021) · Ecological Management & Restoration · doi:10.1111/emr.12505 · Cited by 5
Understanding local adaptation in a freshwater salmonid fish: evolution of a research programme
Vøllestad, L. A., & Primmer, C. (2019) · ICES Journal of Marine Science · doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsz037 · Cited by 5
Sandro, P., Gutiérrez, L., & Speranza, P. (2019) · Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution · doi:10.1007/s10722-019-00791-9 · Cited by 5
Genetic variability of invasive species, Fallopia convolvulus (Polygonaceae) in Iran
Keshavarzi, M., & Mosaferi, S. (2019) · Plant Biosystems · doi:10.1080/11263504.2019.1635218 · Cited by 5
“The results of the present study were in agreement with those previous studies (Leinonen et al. 2013; Oduor et al. 2016).”
Born, J., & Michalski, S. G. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209886 · Cited by 5
Pervasive adaptation of gene expression in DrosophilaPreprint
Nourmohammad, A., Rambeau, J., Held, T., Berg, J., & Lässig, M. (2015) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1502.06406 · Cited by 5
“ct distribution of its expression QTL and on the amount of recombination between these loci. For neutral evolution, this property is implicitly contained in classical quantitative genetics approaches [22,29], but it holds more generally under stabilizing and directional selection [26{28]. To obtain a genome-wide evolu…”
InfluentialRoux, J. L. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818378-6.00007-3 · Cited by 4
Born, J., & Michalski, S. G. (2017) · doi:10.1016/j.aquabot.2016.10.002 · Cited by 5
Effect of population structure and stabilizing selection on quantitative genetic variation
Li, J., Hermisson, J., & Sachdeva, H. (2026) · Genetics · doi:10.1093/genetics/iyag185 · Cited by 2
“In agreement with previous work (reviewed in Leinonen et al. 2013), we find that spatially uniform stabilizing selection reduces variation in trait means across subpopulations, causing Q ST to be lower than neutral F ST (Fig.”
Hu, X.-S., Yanchuk, A., & Yeh, F. (2026) · Journal of Forest Research · doi:10.1007/s11676-026-02015-0 · Cited by 4
“Studies examining morphological variation in both plant and animal species consistently show that most traits have Q st values higher than F st (Merilä and Crnokrak 2001; Leinonen et al. 2013), suggesting that divergent natural selection is the main force driving population divergence.”
Daco, L., Colling, G., & Matthies, D. (2024) · American-Eurasian journal of botany · doi:10.1002/ajb2.16360 · Cited by 4
Population genomic analysis reveals genetic divergence and adaptation in Brachymystax lenok
Li, P., Niu, L., Chang, J.-B., Kou, X., Wang, W.-T., Hu, W., & Liu, Q.-G. (2024) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2024.1293477 · Cited by 4
Jones, R. C., Harrison, P., Hudson, C. J., Hirst, C., Matthews, A. T., Rouger, R., Wise, S. L., O'Reilly-Wapstra, J., Wiltshire, R., Jordan, G., et al. (2023) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f14061072 · Cited by 4
Evolutionary Ecology of Plant-Arthropod Interactions in Light of the “Omics” Sciences: A Broad Guide
De‐la‐Cruz, I. M., Batsleer, F., Bonte, D., Diller, C., Hytönen, T. P., Muola, A., Osorio, S., Posé, D., Vandegehuchte, M. L., & Stenberg, J. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.808427 · Cited by 5
“Use of PST instead of QST is justified when estimates of additive genetic variance are not available (Leinonen et al., 2006, 2013; Lehtonen et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFraimout, A., Guillaume, F., Li, Z.-T., Sillanpää, M., Rastas, P., & Merilä, J. (2021) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.03.01.432833 · Cited by 4
“4 utilized quantitative genomic approach based on fullsib families provides a cost-effective means to obtain material for quantitative genetic studies requiring data from multiple wild populations, such as those needed to infer role of natural selection in explaining observed degree of population differentiation (e.g.…”
MethodSelf-citationLiu, Y., & El-Kassaby, Y. A. (2020) · Heredity · doi:10.1038/s41437-020-00388-4 · Cited by 5
“The most likely state of each SNP was inferred from the HMM, based on observed Hudson’s FST values for each deme.”
MethodInfluentialTarkhnishvili, D., Barateli, N., Murtskhvaladze, M., & Iankoshvili, G. (2020) · Zoologischer Anzeiger · doi:10.1016/j.jcz.2020.02.005 · Cited by 4
“Scientists often simply report this fact, without addressing the heritability of the components of phenotype (Leinonen et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialComparison of neutral and adaptive differentiation in the Mediterranean grass Brachypodium retusum
Vidaller, C., Baumel, A., Juin, M., Dutoit, T., & Bischoff, A. (2019) · Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society · doi:10.1093/botlinnean/boz089 · Cited by 7
“Molecular markers provide a powerful tool to study neutral genetic variation and to compare it with potentially adaptive phenotypic traits (Brommer, 2011; Leinonen et al., 2013; Durka et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialPometti, C., Bessega, C., Cialdella, A., Ewens, M., Saidman, B., & Vilardi, J. (2019) · Botanical journal of the Linnean Society · doi:10.1093/botlinnean/boz023 · Cited by 4
Stutz, W. E., Calhoun, D. M., & Johnson, P. T. J. (2019) · Experimental Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2019.03.001 · Cited by 6
Marin, S., Archambeau, J., Bonhomme, V., Lascoste, M., & Pujol, B. (2018) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/385377 · Cited by 4
Evidence for Recent Polygenic Selection on Educational Attainment Inferred from GWAS HitsPreprint
Piffer, D. (2016) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints201611.0047.v1 · Cited by 3
“Novel methods for identifying polygenic evolution were recently proposed by Piffer (2013), Berg and Coop (2014), Field et al. (2016), and Leinonen et al. (2013).”
MethodFuerst, J. G. R. (2015) · Open Behavioral Genetics · doi:10.26775/obg.2015.06.18 · Cited by 6
Ostrowsky, L., Rea, L. M. S., Hernández-Leal, M. S., Mohn, R. A., Garner, M., Worcester, L., Lapadat, C., Clevenger, J., Myers, Z., Sanmartin, K. P., et al. (2026) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2025.123292 · Cited by 3
Piffer, D., & Kirkegaard, E. O. W. (2024) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2024.43 · Cited by 5
“…between population genetic differentiation in phenotypic traits (Q ST ) and population differentiation in molecular markers driven only by neutral processes (F ST ) are interpreted as evidence of selection (Leinonen et al., 2013; Merilä & Crnokrak, 2001; Whitlock, 2008; Whitlock & Guillaume, 2009.”
Marcondes, R. (2024) · The Quarterly review of biology · doi:10.1086/729241 · Cited by 3
“If trait variation is adaptive, we expect it to be better predicted by the environment than by variation in neutral loci (Leinonen et al. 2013; Seeholzer and Brum-fi eld 2018).”
BackgroundWei, M., Liu, J., Wang, S.-M., Wang, X.-Y., Liu, H.-S., Ma, Q., Wang, J.-C., & Shi, W. (2023) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes14122152 · Cited by 3
Wright, D. S., Rodríguez-Fuentes, J., Ammer, L., Darragh, K., Kuo, C.-Y., McMillan, W. O., Jiggins, C., Montgomery, S. H., & Merrill, R. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.10.26.564160 · Cited by 3
“F ST approach to test for evidence of selection acting on eye morphology is limited by the difficulty in approximating P ST to Q ST (Brommer, 2011), these limitations are largely overcome by rearing our butterflies under common garden conditions (Leinonen et al., 2008, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRipa, R. R., Roncal, J., Linhart, Y. B., Franzese, J., Raffaele, E., & Premoli, A. C. (2023) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121370 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Leinonen, T., McCairns, R. J. S., O'Hara, R. B., & Merilä, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Helsinki (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Merilä, Juha
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Genetics
- Published
- 2013-02-05
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 179-190
- ISSN
- 1471-0056 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0064
- OpenAlex
- W2018112412
- Cited by
- 422
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 18
- FWCI
- 4.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Reviews Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Evolution and Genetic Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Mapping and Diversity in Plants and Animals
- Keywords
- QST-FST comparison, natural selection, genetic drift, genetic differentiation, polygenic traits, genomic heterogeneity, evolutionary genetics, ecological genetics, omics data analysis
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Ecology, Genetic Markers, Genetics, Population, Humans, Selection, Genetic, Genetic Variation, Genetic Heterogeneity, Evolution, Molecular, Genomics, Quantitative Trait Loci, Genetic Drift
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