Neighborhood Risk Factors for Obesity
Abstract
Objective: The goal of this study was to explore neighborhood environmental factors associated with obesity in a sample of adults living in a major U.S. metropolitan area. Research Methods and Procedures: This was a multi‐level study combining data from the U.S. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System with data from the U.S. Census. A total of 15,358 subjects living in 327 zip code tabulation areas were surveyed between 1998 and 2002. The outcome was obesity (BMI >30), and independent variables assessed included individual level variables (age, education, income, smoking status, sex, black race, and Hispanic ethnicity), and zip code level variables (percentage black, percentage Hispanic, percentage with more than a high school education, retail density, establishment density, employment density, population density, the presence of a supermarket, intersection density, median household income, and density of fast food outlets). Results: After controlling for individual level factors, median household income [relative risk (RR) = 0.992; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.990, 0.994], population density (RR = 0.98; 95% CI = 0.972, 0.990), employment density (RR = 1.004; 95% CI = 1.001, 1.009), establishment density (RR = 0.981 95% CI = 0.964, 0.999), and the presence of a supermarket (RR = 0.893; 95% CI = 0.815, 0.978) were associated with obesity risk. Fast food establishment density was poorly associated with obesity risk. Discussion: Where one lives may affect obesity status. Given the influence of the presence of a supermarket on obesity risk, efforts to address food access might be a priority for reducing obesity.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Seven cross-sectional studies in adults and children found greater accessibility to neighborhood supermarkets was associated with lower prevalence of adiposity; 1 county-level ecological study did not.
“Seven cross-sectional studies in both adults and children found that greater accessibility to neighborhood supermarkets (presence, number, or distance) was associated with lower prevalence of adiposity290–297; 1 county-level (ecological) study did not.298”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [291]
Most studies did not find any significant relation between neighborhood accessibility to fast-food restaurants and prevalence of adiposity in either adults or children.
“Most did not find any significant relation between neighborhood accessibility (number, distance, or density) to fast-food restaurants and prevalence of adiposity in either adults or children.173,291,293, 294,299,303–305”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [291]
Cites
A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents
SALLIS, J. F., PROCHASKA, J. J., & TAYLOR, W. C. (2000) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-200005000-00014 · Cited by 4,421 · see citing works
Zhang, J., & Yu, K. F. (1998) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.280.19.1690 · Cited by 4,138 · see citing works
Hox, J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2002) · doi:10.4324/9781410604118 · Cited by 2,419 · see citing works
Neighborhood-based differences in physical activity: an environment scale evaluation
Saelens, B. E., Sallis, J. F., Black, J. B., & Chen, D. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.9.1552 · Cited by 1,954 · see citing works
How the built environment affects physical activity
Handy, S., Boarnet, M. G., Ewing, R., & Killingsworth, R. E. (2002) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(02)00475-0 · Cited by 1,920 · see citing works
Obesity relationships with community design, physical activity, and time spent in cars
Frank, L. D., Andresen, M. A., & Schmid, T. L. (2004) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.04.011 · Cited by 1,741 · see citing works
Neighborhood characteristics associated with the location of food stores and food service places
Morland, K. B., Wing, S., Roux, A. V. D., & Poole, C. (2002) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(01)00403-2 · Cited by 1,662 · see citing works
Relationship between Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity, and Morbidity
Ewing, R., Schmid, T. L., Killingsworth, R. E., Zlot, A. I., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2003) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-18.1.47 · Cited by 1,380 · see citing works
Frank, L. D., Sallis, J. F., Conway, T. L., Chapman, J. E., Saelens, B. E., & Bachman, W. (2006) · Journal of the American Planning Association · doi:10.1080/01944360608976725 · Cited by 1,369 · see citing works
Pereira, M. A., Kartashov, A. I., Ebbeling, C. B., Van Horn, L., Slattery, M. L., Jacobs, D. R., & Ludwig, D. S. (2005) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(04)17663-0 · Cited by 1,348 · see citing works
Bringing context back into epidemiology: variables and fallacies in multilevel analysis
Diez-Roux, A. V. (1998) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.88.2.216 · Cited by 1,317 · see citing works
Morland, K., Wing, S., & Roux, A. D. (2002) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.92.11.1761 · Cited by 1,289 · see citing works
Supermarkets, Other Food Stores, and Obesity
Morland, K., Diez Roux, A. V., & Wing, S. (2006) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.11.003 · Cited by 1,037 · see citing works
Fast food, race/ethnicity, and income
Block, J. P., Scribner, R. A., & DeSalvo, K. B. (2004) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.007 · Cited by 834 · see citing works
Jiles, R. B., Hughes, E., Murphy, W., Flowers, N., McCracken, M., Roberts, H., Ochner, M., Balluz, L. S., Mokdad, A., Elam–Evans, L. D., et al. (2005) · PubMed · Cited by 596 · see citing works
Northridge, M. E. (2003) · Journal of Heredity · doi:10.1093/jurban/jtg064 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Do the Poor Pay More for Food? An Analysis of Grocery Store Availability and Food Price Disparities
Chung, C., & Myers, S. L. (1999) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6606.1999.tb00071.x · Cited by 550 · see citing works
Are fast food restaurants an environmental risk factor for obesity?
Jeffery, R. W., Baxter, J., McGuire, M., & Linde, J. A. (2006) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-3-2 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Austin, S. B., Melly, S. J., Sánchez, B. N., Patel, A., Buka, S. L., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2005) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2004.056341 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
The etiology of obesity: relative contribution of metabolic factors, diet, and physical activity
Weinsier, R. L., Hunter, G. R., Heini, A. F., Goran, M. I., & Sell, S. M. (1998) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0002-9343(98)00190-9 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Urban Sprawl and Risk for Being Overweight or Obese
Lopez, R. P. (2004) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.94.9.1574 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Self-citationWalking, exercising, and smoking: does neighborhood matter?
Ross, C. E. (2000) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00451-7 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Body mass index in elementary school children, metropolitan area food prices and food outlet density
Sturm, R., & Datar, A. (2005) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2005.05.007 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Confronting the Challenges in Reconnecting Urban Planning and Public Health
Corburn, J. (2004) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.94.4.541 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Grubb, K. A. (1959) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.2307/1249385 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Assessing the Impact of Improved Retail Access on Diet in a 'Food Desert': A Preliminary Report
Wrigley, N., Warm, D. L., Margetts, B., & Whelan, A. (2002) · Urban Studies · doi:10.1080/0042098022000011362 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
The Relationship between Convenience of Destinations and Walking Levels in Older Women
King, W. C., Brach, J. S., Belle, S. H., Killingsworth, R. E., Fenton, M., & Kriska, A. M. (2003) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-18.1.74 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
The association between urban form and physical activity in U.S. adults
Berrigan, D. A., & Troiano, R. P. (2002) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(02)00476-2 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Suburban sprawl and physical and mental health
Sturm, R., & Cohen, D. A. (2004) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2004.02.007 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Weight control and physical activity in cancer prevention
Bianchini, F., Kaaks, R., & Vainio, H. (2002) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1046/j.1467-789x.2002.00046.x · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Rural Poor Have Less Access to Supermarkets, Large Grocery Stores
Kaufman, P., & Kaufman, P. R. (1998) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.22004/ag.econ.289786 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Multi-level Analysis in Epidemiologic Research on Health Behaviors and Outcomes
Korff, M. V., Koepsell, T. D., Curry, S. J., & Diehr, P. H. (1992) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116207 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Yun, S., Zhu, B.-P., Black, W., & Brownson, R. C. (2005) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803125 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
ZIP-Code-based versus Tract-based Income Measures as Long-Term Risk-adjusted Mortality Predictors
Thomas, A. J., Eberly, L. E., Smith, G. D., et al. (2006) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwj234 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Biobehavioral Influences on Energy Intake and Adult Weight Gain
McCrory, M. A., Suen, V. M. M., & Roberts, S. B. (2002) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/132.12.3830s · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Beyond Energy Balance: There Is More to Obesity than Kilocalories
Bray, G. A., & Champagne, C. M. (2005) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.018 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Neighborhoods and Obesity in Older AdultsThe Baltimore Memory Study
Glass, T. A., RASMUSSEN, M., & SCHWARTZ, B. (2006) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.07.028 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Risk factors for childhood overweight
Agras, W. S., & Mascola, A. J. (2005) · Current Opinion in Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000172818.87261.ab · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Obesity rates, income, and suburban sprawl: an analysis of US states
Vandegrift, D., & Yoked, T. (2003) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2003.09.003 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
US-based indices of area-level deprivation: Results from HealthCare for Communities
Eibner, C., & Sturm, R. (2005) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.017 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Fast food, race/ethnicity, and incomeA geographic analysis
Block, J. P., Scribner, R. A., & DeSalvo, K. B. (2004) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(04)00139-4 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
The Public Health Problem of Increasing Prevalence Rates of Obesity and What Should Be Done About It
Blair, S. N., & Nichaman, M. Z. (2002) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.4065/77.2.109 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Zhang, X., Christoffel, K. K., Mason, M., & Liu, L. (2006) · International Journal of Health Geographics · doi:10.1186/1476-072x-5-14 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Larson, N. I., Story, M. T., & Nelson, M. C. (2009) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.025 · Cited by 2,003 · see citing works
Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature
Walker, R. E., Keane, C. R., & Burke, J. G. (2010) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013 · Cited by 1,716 · see citing works
Built environments and obesity in disadvantaged populations.
Lovasi, G. S., Hutson, M. A., Guerra, M., & Neckerman, K. M. (2009) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxp005 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
The built environment and obesity: A systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence
Feng, J., Glass, T. A., Curriero, F. C., Stewart, W. F., & Schwartz, B. S. (2010) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.09.008 · Cited by 806 · see citing works
Rosenheck, R. (2008) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2008.00477.x · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Mozaffarian, D., Afshin, A., Benowitz, N. L., Bittner, V., Daniels, S. R., Franch, H. A., Jacobs, D. R., Kraus, W. E., Kris-Etherton, P. M., Krummel, D. A., et al. (2012) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e318260a20b · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Overweight and obesity in urban Africa: A problem of the rich or the poor?
Ziraba, A. K., Fotso, J. C., & Ochako, R. (2009) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-465 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Urban food environments and residents’ shopping behaviors
Cannuscio, C. C., Tappe, K., Hillier, A., Buttenheim, A., Karpyn, A., & Glanz, K. (2013) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2013.06.021 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Neighborhood Food Environments and Body Mass Index
Rose, D., Hutchinson, P. L., Bodor, J. N., Swalm, C. M., Farley, T. A., Cohen, D. A., & Rice, J. C. (2009) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2009.04.024 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Obesity and diabetes, the built environment, and the ‘local’ food economy in the United States, 2007
Salois, M. J. (2012) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2011.04.001 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Neighborhood fast food restaurants and fast food consumption: A national study
Richardson, A. S., Boone-Heinonen, J., Popkin, B. M., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2011) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-543 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Zoning for Health: The Obesity Epidemic and Opportunities for Local Policy Intervention
Chen, S. E., & Florax, R. J. G. M. (2010) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.109.111336 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Stanton, R. A. (2015) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-014-0137-4 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lopez, R. P.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lopez, Russ P.
- Venue
- Obesity
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-08
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 2111-2119
- ISSN
- 1930-7381 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-739X
- OpenAlex
- W2086825163
- Cited by
- 281
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 36.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Obesity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R25 ES12084-03S1, R25ES012084)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Urban Transport and Accessibility
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- neighborhood environment, built environment, median household income, population density, employment density, supermarket access, food access, fast food restaurants, intersection density, retail density
- MeSH terms
- Data Collection, Female, Humans, Male, Massachusetts, Obesity, Residence Characteristics, Risk Factors, Models, Statistical, Prevalence, Censuses, Geographic Information Systems
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
