A framework for understanding the functions of biomolecular condensates across scales
Open accessAbstract
Biomolecular condensates are found throughout eukaryotic cells, including in the nucleus, in the cytoplasm and on membranes. They are also implicated in a wide range of cellular functions, organizing molecules that act in processes ranging from RNA metabolism to signalling to gene regulation. Early work in the field focused on identifying condensates and understanding how their physical properties and regulation arise from molecular constituents. Recent years have brought a focus on understanding condensate functions. Studies have revealed functions that span different length scales: from molecular (modulating the rates of chemical reactions) to mesoscale (organizing large structures within cells) to cellular (facilitating localization of cellular materials and homeostatic responses). In this Roadmap, we discuss representative examples of biochemical and cellular functions of biomolecular condensates from the recent literature and organize these functions into a series of non-exclusive classes across the different length scales. We conclude with a discussion of areas of current interest and challenges in the field, and thoughts about how progress may be made to further our understanding of the widespread roles of condensates in cell biology.
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Integrated function is only possible via structured spatial heterogeneity.
“The second systems biology criterion follows from the observation that integrated function is only possible via structured spatial heterogeneity, that is, that spatial heterogeneity is crucial to cellular function.”
From ‘Whole Organism’, Systems Biology, and Top-Down Criteria for Evaluating Scenarios for the Origin of Life (2021) · cites this paper as [45]
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Mechanistic dissection of increased enzymatic rate in a phase-separated compartment
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TDP-43 condensation properties specify its RNA-binding and regulatory repertoire
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“As a result, TDP-43might face increased competition with other RBPs at the CR-dependent regions and require its CRmediated condensation to outcompete (or coassemble with) these RBPs.”
BackgroundInfluentialNuclear compartmentalization as a mechanism of quantitative control of gene expression
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Autophagosome biogenesis comes out of the black box
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“The importance of the condensed states of proteins, both the liquid-like droplet state and the solid-like amyloid state, has been increasingly recognized in determining the biological activity under cellular conditions (6,7).”
BackgroundExtracellular pectin-RALF phase separation mediates FERONIA global signaling function
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Membrane phase separation drives responsive assembly of receptor signaling domains
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Small-molecule properties define partitioning into biomolecular condensates
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“Condensates are believed to segregate, concentrate and modulate biochemical processes in vivo, affording specificity and efficiency to individual reactions and pathways 5,10,11 .”
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“Biomolecular condensates occur across the tree of life 52,53 and are involved in multiplecellularprocesses 2,54 .”
Generic nature of the condensed states of proteins
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“The assembly of condensates is a cooperative process and the dense phase volume grows continuously with the macromolecule concentration increase until the system entering a single-phase regime, where the molecule’s concentration corresponds to the concentration of dense phase [204].”
BackgroundMolecular and environmental determinants of biomolecular condensate formation
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Viscoelasticity and advective flow of RNA underlies nucleolar form and function
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Protein condensation diseases: therapeutic opportunities
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“Under cellularconditions,manyproteins,inadditiontothenativestate,canpopulatetwo condensed states, the liquid-like droplet state and the solid-like amyloid state 4,10 .”
The nexus between RNA-binding proteins and their effectors
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Mass photometric detection and quantification of nanoscale α-synuclein phase separation
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Understanding and Modeling Polymers: The Challenge of Multiple Scales
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Local environment in biomolecular condensates modulates enzymatic activity across length scales
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Distinct chemical environments in biomolecular condensates
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Python code for figures in 'Controlling biomolecular condensates with chemical reactions'
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Amphiphilic proteins coassemble into multiphasic condensates and act as biomolecular surfactants
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Roles of RNA Modifications in Diverse Cellular Functions
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“Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) involves the formation of biological condensates containing aggregates of proteins or nucleic acids within the cell (Lyon et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMolecular determinants of condensate composition
Holehouse, A. S., & Alberti, S. (2025) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2024.12.021 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Biomolecular condensates at sites of DNA damage: More than just a phase
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Metabolic channeling: predictions, deductions, and evidence
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RNA granules: functional compartments or incidental condensates?Preprint
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“Quantitative studies addressing this question for native RNA granules are rare (Lyon et al. 2021).”
Condensation of Ede1 promotes the initiation of endocytosis
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“Such membrane- less compartments can accelerate reactions, sequester molecules from the cytoplasm or establish spatial organisation (Lyon et al., 2021).”
BackgroundGenetic variation associated with condensate dysregulation in disease
Banani, S. F., Afeyan, L. K., Hawken, S. W., Henninger, J. E., Dall’Agnese, A., Clark, V. E., Platt, J. M., Oksuz, O., Hannett, N. M., Sagi, I., et al. (2022) · Developmental Cell · doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2022.06.010 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
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“Recent research has demonstrated that phase separation processes drive the formation of condensates with distinct compositions from the surrounding protoplasm 172,173 , which are thought to facilitate or inhibit biochemical reactions and provide diverse solvent environments 174 .”
Quantifying viscosity and surface tension of multicomponent protein-nucleic acid condensates
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Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation Modifies the Dynamic Properties of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins
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Asymmetric oligomerization state and sequence patterning can tune multiphase condensate miscibility
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Time-dependent effect of 1,6-hexanediol on biomolecular condensates and 3D chromatin organization
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“…cells contain supramolecular assemblies that are not bound by surrounding membranes and can be found both in the cytoplasm (such as the centriole, P bodies, and stress granules) and the nucleus (such as nucleoli, promyelocytic leukemia [PML] bodies, Cajal bodies, and nuclear speckles) (1, 2).”
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Stress Granules Determine the Development of Obesity-Associated Pancreatic Cancer
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“The second definition is based on the computation of inter-residue distances: interface residues are those having at least one residue of another subunit at a distance below a defined threshold (routinely between 5 and 8 Å).”
BackgroundInfluentialATP-responsive biomolecular condensates tune bacterial kinase signaling
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- Authors
- Lyon, A. S., Peeples, W. B., & Rosen, M. K.
- Affiliations
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rosen, Michael K.
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
- Published
- 2020-11-09
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 215-235
- ISSN
- 1471-0072 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0080
- PMC
- PMC8574987
- OpenAlex
- W3099323319
- Cited by
- 895
- References
- 233
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 186 · 2024: 175 · 2023: 172 · 2022: 115 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 9.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (F32GM136058)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA Research and Splicing
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Nuclear Structure and Function
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Chromatin Dynamics
- Keywords
- biomolecular condensates, liquid-liquid phase separation, length scales, RNA metabolism, gene expression regulation, cell organization, signal transduction, reaction rate, cellular homeostasis
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biochemical Phenomena, Cell Physiological Phenomena, Cytoplasm, Eukaryotic Cells, Humans, Organelles, Macromolecular Substances, Multiprotein Complexes, Protein Aggregates
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