Dietary fructose feeds hepatic lipogenesis via microbiota-derived acetate
Open accessAbstract
Consumption of fructose has risen markedly in recent decades owing to the use of sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup in beverages and processed foods 1, and this has contributed to increasing rates of obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease 2-4. Fructose intake triggers de novo lipogenesis in the liver 4-6, in which carbon precursors of acetyl-CoA are converted into fatty acids. The ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) enzyme cleaves cytosolic citrate to generate acetyl-CoA, and is upregulated after consumption of carbohydrates 7. Clinical trials are currently pursuing the inhibition of ACLY as a treatment for metabolic diseases 8. However, the route from dietary fructose to hepatic acetyl-CoA and lipids remains unknown. Here, using in vivo isotope tracing, we show that liver-specific deletion of Acly in mice is unable to suppress fructose-induced lipogenesis. Dietary fructose is converted to acetate by the gut microbiota 9, and this supplies lipogenic acetyl-CoA independently of ACLY 10. Depletion of the microbiota or silencing of hepatic ACSS2, which generates acetyl-CoA from acetate, potently suppresses the conversion of bolus fructose into hepatic acetyl-CoA and fatty acids. When fructose is consumed more gradually to facilitate its absorption in the small intestine, both citrate cleavage in hepatocytes and microorganism-derived acetate contribute to lipogenesis. By contrast, the lipogenic transcriptional program is activated in response to fructose in a manner that is independent of acetyl-CoA metabolism. These data reveal a two-pronged mechanism that regulates hepatic lipogenesis, in which fructolysis within hepatocytes provides a signal to promote the expression of lipogenic genes, and the generation of microbial acetate feeds lipogenic pools of acetyl-CoA.
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Dietary fructose could be converted to microbial acetate by the gut microbiota, which may enhance hepatic lipogenesis by supplying lipogenic acetyl-CoA independently of ATP citrate lyase.
“an animal study found that dietary fructose could be converted to microbial acetate by the gut microbiota, which may enhance hepatic lipogenesis by supplying lipogenic acetyl-CoA independently of ATP citrate lyase.96”
From Dietary sugar consumption and health: umbrella review (2023) · cites this paper as [96]
In mice, dietary fructose is metabolized by gut microbes into acetate, serving as a source of acetyl-CoA for lipid synthesis.
“In mice, dietary fructose is metabolized by gut microbes into acetate, serving as a source of acetyl-CoA for lipid synthesis [61].”
From The Gut–Brain–Microbiota Connection and Its Role in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2025) · cites this paper as [61]
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Acetyl-CoA Metabolism and Histone Acetylation in the Regulation of Aging and Lifespan
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“small intestine, but rather, some passes on to the colon where it is fermented into short-chain fatty acids, especially acetate (Zhao et al., 2020).”
Background“Sweet death”: Fructose as a metabolic toxin that targets the gut-liver axis
Febbraio, M. A., & Karin, M. (2021) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2021.09.004 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“, 2020), using comparatively low amounts of fructose, found that enterocyte-specific KHK-C deficiency was not protective, but hepatic steatosis was quite low in these experiments, as also observed previously (Zhao et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe small intestine shields the liver from fructose-induced steatosis
Jang, C., Wada, S., Yang, S. H., Gosis, B. S., Zeng, X., Zhang, Z., Shen, Y., Lee, G., Arany, Z. P., & Rabinowitz, J. D. (2020) · Nature Metabolism · doi:10.1038/s42255-020-0222-9 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
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“Similarly, diets enriched with fructose alter the composition of the short-chain fatty acids in the gut, inducing a high microbial production of butyrate, acetate or propionate by the intestinal microbiota, therefore increasing the production of acetyl-CoA from acetate, which contributes to lipogenesis [82].”
BackgroundShort-chain fatty acids activate acetyltransferase p300
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Developing dietary interventions as therapy for cancer
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Fructose contributes to the Warburg effect for cancer growth
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“showed using mice that dietary fructose is converted to acetate by the gut microbiota [40].”
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“ChREBP also induces Acss2 expression (Figure 1) (14, 29, 33).”
BackgroundMitochondria-rough-ER contacts in the liver regulate systemic lipid homeostasis
Anastasia, I., Ilacqua, N., Raimondi, A., Lemieux, P., Ghandehari‐Alavijeh, R., Faure, G., Mekhedov, S., Williams, K. J., Caicci, F., Valle, G., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108873 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
NAD precursors cycle between host tissues and the gut microbiome
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Self-citationThe Role of Gut–Liver Axis in Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis Associated NAFLD and NAFLD-HCC
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“However, there is a controversial study showing microbiota-derived acetate can promote hepatic lipogenesis [40].”
BackgroundFougerat, A., Montagner, A., Loiseau, N., Guillou, H., & Wahli, W. (2020) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells9071638 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“This pathway results in lipogenic pools of acetyl-CoA [67].”
BackgroundDietary Fructose and Fructose-Induced Pathologies
Jung, S., Bae, H., Song, W., & Jang, C. (2022) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-062220-025831 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Self-citationRecent advances in fructose intake and risk of hyperuricemia
Zhang, C., Li, L., Zhang, Y., & Zeng, C. (2020) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110795 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
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Acetylcarnitine shuttling links mitochondrial metabolism to histone acetylation and lipogenesis
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“Last, although glucose use for fatty acid synthesis is strongly suppressed in the absence of ACLY, it is not fully blocked in vitro or in vivo ( 4 , 6 ).”
Self-citationIntestinal dysbiosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): focusing on the gut–liver axis
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Serine catabolism generates liver NADPH and supports hepatic lipogenesis
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Self-citationShort‐chain fatty acids: bridges between diet, gut microbiota, and health
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Amino acid is a major carbon source for hepatic lipogenesis
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MASH: the nexus of metabolism, inflammation, and fibrosis
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“These actions on multiple cell types within the liver may explain in part the discordant findings between beneficial effects with pharmacological inhibitors and the benign or detrimental findings with hepatocyte-selective genetic inhibition of these targets (109, 143–145).”
InfluentialSchnabl, B., Damman, C. J., & Carr, R. M. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci186423 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“In short, excess carbohydrate consumption can significantly disrupt the intestinal barrier and should be avoided (24).”
Zhang, Y., Cao, M., Li, Y., Dai, G.-C., Lu, P., Zhang, M., Bai, L., Chen, X.-X., Zhang, C., Shi, L., et al. (2022) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2047005 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
The key role of altered tubule cell lipid metabolism in kidney disease development
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The Microbiota and the Gut–Brain Axis in Controlling Food Intake and Energy Homeostasis
Romaní‐Pérez, M., Bullich‐Vilarrubias, C., López‐Almela, I., Liébana-García, R., Olivares, M., & Sanz, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22115830 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Gavage of [13C]fructose in mice reveals that high doses of fructose saturate the fructose-to-glucose conversion in the small intestine, enhancing fructose utilization by the microbiota in the colon via the hexokinase pathway to further generate tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) intermediates, such as essential amino acid…”
BackgroundThe role of ChREBP in carbohydrate sensing and NAFLD development
Régnier, M., Carbinatti, T., Parlati, L., Benhamed, F., & Postic, C. (2023) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-023-00809-4 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Beisner, J., Gonzalez‐Granda, A., Basrai, M., Damms-Machado, A., & Bischoff, S. C. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12113444 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Keywords: fructose; microbiota; host-microbe interactions; obesity; metabolic syndrome; NAFLD”
BackgroundInfluentialKrause, N., & Wegner, A. (2020) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells9122635 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Recently, Zhao and colleagues, however, showed that the microbiome contributes to the supply of lipogenic acetyl-CoA by converting fructose to acetate [81].”
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Gut and Vaginal Microbiomes in PCOS: Implications for Women’s Health
Gu, Y., Zhou, G., Zhou, F., Li, Y. O., Wu, Q., He, H., Zhang, Y. Q., Ma, C., Ding, J., & Hua, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.808508 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“The gut microbiota is proved to be involved in the production of acetate (21), butyrate, and propionate (22), which are main short-chain fatty acids with effect of antiinflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and immunomodulatory.”
BackgroundYang, Z., Su, H., Lv, Y., Tao, H., Jiang, Y., Ni, Z., Peng, L., & Chen, X. (2022) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112309 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Research progress in the role and mechanism of Leucine in regulating animal growth and development
Rehman, S. U., Ali, R., Zhang, H., Zafar, M. H., & Wang, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1252089 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
The pathophysiology of MASLD: an immunometabolic perspective
Schwärzler, J., Grabherr, F., Grander, C., Adolph, T. E., & Tilg, H. (2023) · Expert Review of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1080/1744666x.2023.2294046 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Endothelium‐derived lactate is required for pericyte function and blood–brain barrier maintenance
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“The liquid chromatography-MS (LC – MS) analysis was performed as previously described (Zhao et al , 2020).”
Self-citationDiet-induced gut dysbiosis and inflammation: Key drivers of obesity-driven NASH
Kang, G. G., Trevaskis, N. L., Murphy, A. J., & Febbraio, M. A. (2023) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.105905 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
High-Fructose Diet Increases Inflammatory Cytokines and Alters Gut Microbiota Composition in Rats
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“Evidence showed that consumption of HFCS in beverages and processed foods induced development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and chronic inflammation [5].”
BackgroundThe Therapeutic Effect of SCFA-Mediated Regulation of the Intestinal Environment on Obesity
You, H., Tan, Y., Yu, D., Qiu, S., Bai, Y., He, J., Cao, H., Che, Q., Guo, J., & Su, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.886902 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
A key genetic factor governing arabinan utilization in the gut microbiome alleviates constipation
Zhang, C., Yu, L., Ma, C., Jiang, S., Zhang, Y., Wang, S., Tian, F., Xue, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, H., et al. (2023) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2023.10.011 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Early-onset colorectal cancer: Current insights and future directions
Wu, C. W., & Lui, R. N.-S. (2022) · World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology · doi:10.4251/wjgo.v14.i1.230 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Acetyl-CoA synthetase 2(ACSS2): a review with a focus on metabolism and tumor development
Ling, R., Chen, G., Tang, X., Liu, N., Zhou, Y., & Chen, D. (2022) · Discover Oncology · doi:10.1007/s12672-022-00521-1 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“This acetate is then used to produce acetyl-CoA via hepatic ACSS2, promoting fatty acid synthesis and fostering the formation of fatty liver [46].”
MethodEmerging connections between gut microbiome bioenergetics and chronic metabolic diseases
Daisley, B. A., Koenig, D. W., Engelbrecht, K. C., Doney, L., Hards, K., Al, K. F., Reid, G., & Burton, J. P. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110087 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The Role of Fructose in Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis: Old Relationship and New Insights
Federico, A., Rosato, V., Masarone, M., Torre, P., Dallio, M., Romeo, M., & Persico, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041314 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Tissue-Specific Fructose Metabolism in Obesity and Diabetes
Helsley, R. N., Moreau, F., Gupta, M. K., Radulescu, A., DeBosch, B. J., & Softic, S. (2020) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01342-8 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Gut microbiome in gastrointestinal cancer: a friend or foe?
Liu, Y., Baba, Y., Ishimoto, T., Gu, X. J., Zhang, J., Nomoto, D., Okadome, K., Baba, H., & Qiu, P. (2022) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.69331 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Dietary cholesterol induces an increase in taurocholic acid and a decrease in indole propionic acid which drive the occurrence of NAFLD-HCC [66].”
BackgroundLinks between gut microbiome composition and fatty liver disease in a large population sample
Ruuskanen, M. O., Åberg, F. O., Männistö, V., Havulinna, A. S., Méric, G., Liu, Y., Loomba, R. S., Vázquez‐Baeza, Y., Tripathi, A., Valsta, L. M., et al. (2021) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2021.1888673 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Dysregulation of Lipid and Glucose Metabolism in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Bhat, N., & Mani, A. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15102323 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Furthermore, gut microbiota-derived acetate has recently been shown to increase DNL in response to dietary fructose [46].”
BackgroundA Review of the Relationship between Gut Microbiome and Obesity
Zsálig, D., Berta, A., Tóth, V., Szabó, Z., Klara, S. M., Figler, M., Pusztafalvi, H., & Polyák, É. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13010610 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“The acetate produced functions as a precursor for acetyl-CoA and fatty acids for de novo lipogenesis in the liver, thus, the overproduction of acetate may contribute to obesity [86].”
Butyrate and obesity: Current research status and future prospect
Peng, K., Dong, W., Luo, T., Tang, H., Zhu, W., Huang, Y., & Yang, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1098881 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Acetate also contributes to the synthesis of cholesterol and the synthesis of lipids in liver (22, 23).”
BackgroundDeciphering the gut microbiome of grass carp through multi-omics approach
Li, M., Liang, H., Yang, H., Ding, Q., Xia, R., Chen, J., Zhou, W., Yang, Y., Zhang, Z., Yao, Y., et al. (2024) · Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s40168-023-01715-7 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Studies have confirmed that the gut microbiota is able to ferment dietary fiber to produce short-chain fatty acids (e.g., acetate) that modulate lipid metabolism in the host [54, 65].”
BackgroundObesogens: How They Are Identified and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Their Action
Mohajer, N., Du, C. Y., Checkcinco, C., & Blumberg, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.780888 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Fructose drives de novo lipogenesis affecting metabolic health
Geidl, B., & Gerber, P. A. (2023) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/joe-22-0270 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
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Sun, S., Araki, Y., Hanzawa, F., Umeki, M., Kojima, T., Nishimura, N., Ikeda, S., Mochizuki, S., & Oda, H. (2021) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2021.108621 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Mannose Treatment: A Promising Novel Strategy to Suppress Inflammation
Zhang, W., Cheng, H., Gui, Y., Zhan, Q., Li, S., Qiao, W., & Tong, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.756920 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“For example, one study reported that glucose-fructose syrup (HFCS) enhances intestinal tumor growth in mice via activation of glycolysis and increased synthesis of fatty acids in tumor cells that support tumor growth (1); Another study found that high fructose intake is associated with increased hepatic fatty acid syn…”
BackgroundIntegrated Multi‐Cohort Analysis of the Parkinson's Disease Gut Metagenome
Boktor, J. C., Sharon, G., Metman, L. V., Hall, D. A., Engen, P. A., Zreloff, Z. J., Hakim, D., Bostick, J. W., Ousey, J. A., Lange, D., et al. (2023) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.29300 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Microbial metabolites influence the function of the metabolic, immune, and nervous systems in animals and humans.(46-48) We inferred the microbial metabolic potential of the PD microbiome through MetaCyc pathway abundance.”
BackgroundThe gut–liver axis: host microbiota interactions shape hepatocarcinogenesis
Silveira, M. A. D., Bilodeau, S., Greten, T. F., Wang, X. W., & Trinchieri, G. (2022) · Trends in cancer · doi:10.1016/j.trecan.2022.02.009 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Lund, P. J., Gates, L. A., Leboeuf, M., Smith, S. A., Chau, L., Lopes, M. D. C., Friedman, E. S., Saiman, Y., Kim, M. S., Shoffler, C. A., et al. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111809 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The differences in carbohydrate utilization ability between six rounds of Sauce-flavor Daqu
Zhu, Q., Chen, L., Peng, Z., Zhang, Q., Huang, W., Yang, F., Du, G., Zhang, J., & Wang, L. (2022) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112184 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Fang, J., Chen, J., Zheng, J.-L., Zeng, H.-X., Chen, J.-G., Wu, C.-H., Cai, J.-L., Wang, Z., & Zhuang, S. (2023) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-22-1844 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The Contribution of Dietary Fructose to Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Yu, S., Li, C., Ji, G., & Zhang, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.783393 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“The metabolites of fructose in the intestine, such as SCFA, and amino acid also provide substrates for hepatic DNL, leading to the lipid accumulation in hepatocytes and the increase of circulating fatty acids (Jang et al., 2018; Jahn et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020) (Figure 2).”
BackgroundComparison of Different Soluble Dietary Fibers during the In Vitro Fermentation Process
Bai, J., Li, Y., Li, T., Zhang, W., Fan, M., Zhang, K., Qian, H., Zhang, H., Qi, X., & Wang, L. (2021) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00237 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
A small molecule targeting ALOX12-ACC1 ameliorates nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in mice and macaques
Zhang, X., Ji, Y., Cheng, Y., Cheng, Y., Wang, J., Wang, J., Zhao, L., Huang, Y., Sun, D., Xiang, H., et al. (2021) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abg8116 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Zhu, C., Huai, Q., Zhang, X., Dai, H., Li, X., & Wang, H. (2022) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.78525 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Depletion of the microbiota or silencing of hepatic acetate-CoA synthetase 2, which generates acetyl-CoA from acetate, potently suppresses the conversion of bolus fructose into hepatic acetyl-CoA and fatty acids [36].”
BackgroundThe fructose survival hypothesis for obesity
Johnson, R. J., Lanaspa, M. A., Sánchez‐Lozada, L. G., Tolan, D. R., Nakagawa, T., Ishimoto, T., Andrés-Hernando, A., Rodríguez‐Iturbe, B., & Stenvinkel, P. (2023) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2022.0230 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“The inhibition of aconitase stimulates the enzymes involved in lipogenesis [41,49] while acetate production by the microbiota in response to fructose is used to generate acetyl CoA that provides the substrate.”
BackgroundAdded Fructose in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and in Metabolic Syndrome: A Narrative Review
Coronati, M., Baratta, F., Pastori, D., Ferro, D., Angelico, F., & Ben, M. D. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14061127 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“In addition, in the intestinal lumen, fructose undergoes the gut microbiota action and is converted into acetate, which supplies lipogenic acetyl-CoA independently of the fructolytic metabolic processes [51].”
BackgroundReprogramming of Hepatic Metabolism and Microenvironment in Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis
Rui, L., & Lin, J. D. (2022) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-062220-105200 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
- Authors
- Zhao, S., Jang, C., Liu, J., Uehara, K., Gilbert, M., Izzo, L., Zeng, X., Trefely, S., Fernandez, S., Carrer, A., Miller, K. D., Schug, Z. T., Snyder, N. W., Gade, T. P., Titchenell, P. M., Rabinowitz, J. D., & Wellen, K. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (IT)
- The Wistar Institute (US)
- Temple University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wellen, Kathryn E.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2020-03-18
- Volume
- 579
- Issue
- 7800
- Pages
- 586-591
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC7416516
- OpenAlex
- W3012090404
- Cited by
- 553
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 90 · 2024: 91 · 2023: 96 · 2022: 91 · 2021: 82 · 2020: 42
- FWCI
- 59.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (T32CA115299, R01CA174761, F99CA222741, R01CA228339, T32CA009171, P30CA010815)
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R01GM132261, T32GM007229, K12GM081259)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK116005, DP1DK113643, K01DK111715, P30DK019525, T32DK007314)
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (T32AR053461)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R03HD092630)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diet, Metabolism, and Disease
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Lipid metabolism and biosynthesis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Liver Disease Diagnosis and Treatment
- Keywords
- dietary fructose, hepatic lipogenesis, de novo lipogenesis, gut microbiota, acetate, acetyl-CoA, ATP citrate lyase, ACSS2, fructolysis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, obesity, isotope tracing, lipogenic gene expression, fructose absorption
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Dietary Sugars, Acetates, Acetyl Coenzyme A, Acetate-CoA Ligase, Animals, ATP Citrate (pro-S)-Lyase, Fatty Acids, Fructose, Gene Expression Regulation, Isotope Labeling, Liver, Male, Substrate Specificity, Citric Acid, Hepatocytes, Lipogenesis, Mice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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