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The practical implementation of artificial intelligence technologies in medicine
Open accessAbstract
The development of artificial intelligence (AI)-based technologies in medicine is advancing rapidly, but real-world clinical implementation has not yet become a reality. Here we review some of the key practical issues surrounding the implementation of AI into existing clinical workflows, including data sharing and privacy, transparency of algorithms, data standardization, and interoperability across multiple platforms, and concern for patient safety. We summarize the current regulatory environment in the United States and highlight comparisons with other regions in the world, notably Europe and China.
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“The increasing availability of digital health data, advances in computational capacity, and progress in algorithm development have accelerated its integration into clinical practice [3].”
From Artificial Intelligence in Clinical Decision-Making: A Comprehensive Review of Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Therapeutic Applications, Validation Gaps, Bias, and Deployment Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as [3]
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In the citing paper
“An AI tools' effectiveness in improving clinical outcomes depends on its adoption by front-line clinicians, where “the rubber meets the road.”12”
From Clinician Adoption of an Artificial Intelligence Algorithm to Detect Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction in Primary Care. (2022) · cites this paper as [12]
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In the citing paper
“In general, AI tools have shown promise in development, but few have been able to translate into the real-world settings for patient management [4].”
From Checklist Approach to Developing and Implementing AI in Clinical Settings: Instrument Development Study (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
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In the citing paper
“Beyond developing AI algorithms, productizing them for clinical use is an exceptionally complex task4,13.”
From Establishing organizational AI governance in healthcare: a case study in Canada (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
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In the citing paper
“While AI adoption is expected to grow, its actual implementation currently remains limited due to a variety of challenges.”
From Establishing organizational AI governance in healthcare: a case study in Canada (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“There is a global consensus that AI solutions must be fair and nondiscriminatory and that AI solutions in health care should have a positive impact across all sectors of social and economic life.2,14,15”
From MINIMAR (MINimum Information for Medical AI Reporting): Developing reporting standards for artificial intelligence in health care. (2020) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“AI-related studies consider the safety and quality of autonomous operations an essential factor affecting the use of AI devices [27].”
From Use of AI-based tools for healthcare purposes: a survey study from consumers’ perspectives (2020) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“This decade can be viewed as a stabilization phase for AI applications in oncology, marked by incremental improvements and specialized uses, predominantly in image analysis5.”
From Large language models and multimodal foundation models for precision oncology (2024) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Researchers in healthcare can use Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence to create various designs and assess the practicality without endangering the lives of human volunteers [131,132].”
From Medical 4.0 technologies for healthcare: Features, capabilities, and applications (2022) · cites this paper as [131]
In the citing paper
“While technical performance of AI applications is expected to increase continuously, its implementation in clinical radiology practice is rather complex and has so far been slow [6, 12, 13].”
From Implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) applications in radiology: hindering and facilitating factors (2020) · cites this paper as [6]
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Metadata
- Authors
- He, J., Baxter, S. L., Xu, J., Xu, J., Zhou, X., & Zhang, K.
- Affiliations
- First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (CN)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Beijing Tongren Hospital (CN)
- Fudan University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- He, Jianxing
- Zhang, Kang
- Venue
- Nature Medicine
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 30-36
- ISSN
- 1078-8956 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-170X
- PMC
- PMC6995276
- OpenAlex
- W2906295032
- Semantic Scholar
- d55e70a42579c7895938b6c43736163dbaf55145
- Cited by
- 2,246
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 308 · 2025: 420 · 2024: 395 · 2023: 356 · 2022: 282 · 2021: 251 · 2020: 164 · 2019: 69
- FWCI
- 2.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou University
- Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory
- U.S. National Library of Medicine (T15LM011271)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Health Information Management › Electronic Health Records Systems
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Health Information Management › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence in healthcare, clinical implementation, clinical workflow, data sharing, data privacy, algorithmic transparency, data standardization, interoperability, patient safety, AI regulation, health policy
- MeSH terms
- Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, Humans, Medicine, Reference Standards, Social Control, Formal, United States
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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