CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 20Chaos-based Image/Signal EncryptionComputer Science and EngineeringAdvanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques

A chaos-based augmented image encryption scheme for satellite images using Fredkin logic

Open access
Alexan, Wassim, Maher, Engy Aly, Mamdouh, Eyad, Youssef, Mohamed, Ehab, Noha·2025·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-025-22008-zPMC PMC12559233
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This article presents a novel augmented image encryption algorithm tailored for securing satellite images, addressing the critical need for robust protection of sensitive geographic data. Implementing Shannon’s principles of confusion and diffusion, the method begins by augmenting multiple plain images into a single large image, followed by a three-stage encryption process. Initially, the augmented image is separated into its three color channels, which are transformed into one-dimensional (1D) bit-streams, split and altered using the Gauss Circle map, and restructured via Fredkin Gates to enhance unpredictability. Subsequently, the bit-streams are converted into 1D bytes and $$2 \times 2$$ matrices, processed through three systems incorporating hyperchaos-induced keys and dynamic Hill Cipher matrices for additional confusion and diffusion. The final stage combines these encrypted streams into one image while preserving the integrity of color data. The proposed method achieves strong security metrics, including an average Number of Pixels Change Rate (NPCR) of $$99.6115\%$$ , a Unified Average Changing Intensity (UACI) of $$31.71\%$$ , and high entropy values (e.g., 7.9989) for encrypted images, ensuring robust resistance to differential and statistical attacks. The encryption demonstrates computational efficiency with an encryption time of 0.2817s for $$256\times 256$$ images and maintains a low Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) of 8.1 dB, reflecting effective data obfuscation. This multistage chaos-based approach, leveraging Fredkin logic gates and hyperchaos-induced keys, significantly enhances security, scalability, and efficiency, making it ideal for high-stakes satellite imagery applications where data integrity and confidentiality are paramount.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes a chaos-based augmented image encryption scheme for satellite images using Gauss Circle map, Fredkin gates, 6D/8D hyperchaotic systems, and dynamic Hill cipher. It reports strong security metrics (average NPCR 99.6115%, UACI 31.70622%, entropy near 8) and fast encryption (0.2817 s for 256×256 images), while noting memory and hardware-implementation limitations.

Key findings

  • The scheme achieves an average NPCR of 99.6115% and UACI of 31.70622%, with encrypted-image entropy values near 8 (e.g., 7.99891 for Satellite Image 1 and 7.9989 for Satellite Image 3), and SSIM = 1 for decrypted images.
  • Encryption time is 0.281687 s for 256×256 images, scaling to 4.20981 s for 1024×1024 images, with computational complexity O(M×N); the key-space analysis reports 2^5102 (the introduction states 2^4464).
  • S-box metrics are NL = 108, SAC ≈ 0.497, BIC = 108, LAP = 0.07813, and DAP = 0.015625, and all listed NIST SP 800-22 tests conclude “Success.”
  • Encrypted-image PCC values are near zero (averages: −0.003960 H, −0.001675 D, 0.000874 V) versus plain-image averages of 0.9134898 H, 0.8618552 D, and 0.8978376 V.

Methods

  • Design: multiple plain images are augmented into one image, then encrypted in three stages: color channels are converted to 1D bit-streams and altered with the Gauss Circle map and Fredkin gates; bytes are processed with 6D-hyperchaotic S-boxes; 2×2 matrices are multiplied by 8D-hyperchaotic dynamic Hill cipher matrices; decryption reverses these stages.
  • Data: test images come from the USC-SIPI database and MAR20 database, resized to 256×256 unless specified; performance evaluation uses an Intel Core i7-7500U CPU at 2.7 GHz with 8 GB RAM, while comparison tables include other hardware such as AMD Ryzen 5600H.
  • Analysis: visual/histogram inspection, SSIM, MSE, PSNR, MAE, entropy, PCC, NPCR, UACI, DFT, encryption time, Big O complexity, S-box metrics, occlusion and noise attacks, key sensitivity, NIST SP 800-22, key space, and comparative tables against literature.

Limitations

  • The paper states that image augmentation increases memory usage, high-precision chaotic systems can complicate hardware implementation, and software simulations require further validation on real-time hardware platforms.
  • The paper states that UACI deviates from the theoretical ideal of 33.46% due to the structured augmented image and deterministic encryption components, and that occlusion results show higher MSE/lower PSNR than existing methods, reflecting stronger security but lower robustness/recoverability.
  • Evident from the text: the key space is reported inconsistently, with the introduction giving 2^4464 and the key-space analysis giving 2^5102.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41598-025-22008-z

Cites

49 of 49 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

13 of 23 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    The Fredkin gate and CNOT gate offer additional security benefits, enhancing resistance to cryptographic attacks.

    “The Fredkin gate and CNOT gate offer additional security benefits; the Fredkin gate performs controlled swaps based on the input condition, and the CNOT gate provides a bitwise conditional operation that is fundamental in quantum computing and adds a layer of complexity and robustness to the encryption process, enhancing its resistance to cryptographic attacks25.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Soeken, M., & Roetteler, M. Quantum circuits for functionally controlled not gates. in 2020 IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE). IEEE, pp. 366–371 (2020). source

      The Background and Motivation section describes CNOT as part of the quantum gate set, and Section II describes circuits implementing a conditional bitwise operation. But the paper does not discuss the Fredkin gate or claim that either gate improves encryption security or resistance to cryptographic attacks; searches for those terms found no supporting passage. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Traditional encryption algorithms such as DES, AES, and IDEA often do not fully meet the unique demands of satellite imagery, where both high security and minimal loss of image detail are required.

    “Traditional encryption algorithms such as the Data Encryption Standard (DES), Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) have been instrumental in protecting data. However, these methods often do not fully meet the unique demands of satellite imagery, where both high security and minimal loss of image detail are required2.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Alexan, W., Alexan, N. & Gabr, M. Multiple-layer image encryption utilizing fractional-order chen hyperchaotic map and cryptographically secure prngs. Fractal Fract. 7(4), 287 (2023). source

      The Introduction says DES and AES are no longer best suited to image encryption, citing security concerns and the need to preserve image quality. It discusses images generally, not satellite imagery, and names 3DES rather than IDEA. The copy therefore does not support the claim’s satellite-specific scope or its inclusion of IDEA. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Chaos-based encryption methods introduce a high degree of non-linearity and complexity, which is crucial for thwarting cryptographic attacks.

    “Utilizing the inherent unpredictability and sensitivity to initial conditions characteristic of chaotic systems, chaos-based encryption methods introduce a high degree of non-linearity and complexity12–14. This is crucial for thwarting a variety of cryptographic attacks, enhancing the security of multimedia files.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [12] Hosny, K. M., Zaki, M. A., Lashin, N. A., Fouda, M. M. & Hamza, H. M. Multimedia security using encryption: A survey. IEEE Access 11, 63 027-63 056 (2023). source

      The Encryption section says chaotic maps are sensitive to initial conditions, making encryption keys difficult for attackers to predict, and the survey describes complex chaos-based schemes that resist attacks (Spatial Domain; Full Encryption). These passages support the security rationale, but our copy does not specifically attribute a high degree of non-linearity to chaos-based encryption or identify non-linearity as crucial to thwarting attacks. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [13] Alexan, W. et al. Stegocrypt: A robust tri-stage spatial steganography algorithm using tlm encryption and dna coding for securing digital images. IET Image Process. 18, 4189-4206. (2024). source

      The chaotic-logistic-map discussion describes unpredictability, sensitivity to initial conditions, and complex nonlinear dynamics. Section 4.10 reports resistance to brute-force attacks for the paper’s specific algorithm, but does not establish that chaos-based encryption methods generally thwart a variety of cryptographic attacks because of that nonlinearity and complexity. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [14] Long, G., Verma, V., Jiang, D., Yang, Y. & Ahmad, M. A le-controlled 4d non-degenerate hyperchaotic system and stp-cs model based efficient image encryption algorithm. PPhys. Scr. 100(2), 025228 (2025). source
  • Interpretationown data

    The achieved key space is well above the literature-recommended threshold of 2^100.

    “This achieved key space is well above the literature-recommended threshold of 2^{100}52.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Alvarez, G. & Li, S. Some basic cryptographic requirements for chaos-based cryptosystems. Int. J. Bifurc. Chaos 16(08), 2129–2151 (2006). source
  • Premisecitation

    The 6D hyperchaotic system exhibits hyperchaotic behavior with four positive Lyapunov exponents under the specified parameters.

    “Since there are four positive Lyapunov exponents, this system is classified as hyperchaotic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Sun, S. A new image encryption scheme based on 6d hyperchaotic system and random signal insertion. IEEE Access 11, 66009-66016. (2023). source
  • May combine two claims. 34
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proposed scheme has an encryption time of 0.2817s, significantly faster than 0.7528s in reference 20 and 3.0019s in reference 30.

    “The results in Table 16 highlight the superior computational efficiency of the proposed scheme, with an encryption time of 0.2817s, significantly faster than 0.7528s in20 and 3.0019s in30.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [20] Gabr, M. et al. R3—rescale, rotate, and randomize: A novel image cryptosystem utilizing chaotic and hyper-chaotic systems. IEEE Access 11, 119 284-119 312 (2023). source

      The paper’s Encryption Time Analysis (§12; page unavailable) reports a sub-one-second encryption time for its R³ scheme on a 256×256 image and says it outperformed all but one compared algorithm. Our copy does not give the claimed times of 0.2817 s, 0.7528 s, or 3.0019 s, or establish the stated comparison; its Table 16 concerns NIST randomness tests, not encryption time. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [30] Elkandoz, M. T. & Alexan, W. Image encryption based on a combination of multiple chaotic maps. Multimed. Tools Appl. 81(18), 25 497-25 518 (2022). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chaos-based image encryption algorithms are efficient, making them ideal for real-time applications and suitable for environments with constrained computational resources.

    “Additionally, chaos-based image encryption algorithms are known for their efficiency, making them ideal for real-time applications and suitable for environments with constrained computational resources17,18.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Fan, F., Verma, V., Long, G., Tsafack, N. & Jiang, D. Image encryption scheme using a new 4-d chaotic system with a cosinoidal nonlinear term in wmsns. Phys. Scr. 99(5), 055216 (2024). source

      Section 6.7 reports that the proposed chaos-based scheme encrypts images faster than the alternatives tested, while Section 2 describes its lightweight design for resource-limited sensor networks. The paper does not establish that chaos-based image encryption algorithms generally are ideal for real-time use, and its timing tests used a laptop rather than a resource-constrained sensor node. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [18] Ge, B., Chen, X., Chen, G. & Shen, Z. Secure and fast image encryption algorithm using hyper-chaos-based key generator and vector operation. IEEE Access 9, 137 635-137 654 (2021). source

      The computational-cost analysis reports fast execution for the paper’s proposed chaos-based algorithm and says it can support real-time image transmission. But the experiments used a desktop computer, and the paper does not establish suitability for environments with constrained computational resources or for chaos-based algorithms generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proposed algorithm has a key space of 2^5102, surpassing most existing methods, including 2^4624 in reference 36 and 2^554 in reference 30.

    “With a key space of 2^{5102}, the proposed algorithm surpasses most existing methods, including those with substantial key spaces such as36 2^{4624} and30 (2^{554}).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [36] Alexan, W. et al. Triple layer rgb image encryption algorithm utilizing three hyperchaotic systems and its fpga implementation. IEEE Access 12, 118 339-118 361 (2024). source
    • cites [30] Elkandoz, M. T. & Alexan, W. Image encryption based on a combination of multiple chaotic maps. Multimed. Tools Appl. 81(18), 25 497-25 518 (2022). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proposed encryption scheme results in higher MSE and lower PSNR under occlusion compared to existing methods, reflecting stronger security but lower robustness.

    “The results indicate that the proposed encryption scheme results in higher MSE and lower PSNR under occlusion compared to existing methods, reflecting stronger security but lower robustness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Entropy metrics H_P and H_E indicate high randomness in the encrypted images, with H_E values close to the ideal upper bound of 8.

    “Additionally, the entropy metrics (H_P and H_E) indicate high randomness in the encrypted images, with H_E values close to the ideal upper bound of 8, affirming strong encryption quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The NIST suite results are consistently marked as Success across various tests, including Frequency, Block Frequency, Runs, Serial, Random Excursions, and their Variants, confirming robust randomness of the tested sequences.

    “The results consistently marked as ’Success’ across various tests, including Frequency, Block Frequency, Runs, Serial, Random Excursions, and their Variants, confirm the robust randomness of the tested sequences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Despite substantial occlusion, the encrypted image's content remains secure and visually obscured.

    “The analysis shows that despite substantial occlusion, the encrypted image’s content remains secure and visually obscured, demonstrating the algorithms’s effectiveness in preserving data confidentiality even when significant parts of the image are obstructed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proposed algorithm achieves a lower PSNR and a higher MAE compared to other methods.

    “In particular, the proposed algorithm achieves a lower PSNR and a higher MAE compared to other methods, which is advantageous in this context as it suggests stronger encryption (lower PSNR indicates less similarity between the original and encrypted images, and higher MAE indicates more significant alterations).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    SSIM is consistently 1 for all test images, indicating perfect similarity between decrypted and original plain images and no structural distortion during decryption.

    “The SSIM is consistently 1 for all test images, indicating perfect similarity between the decrypted and the original plain images, ensuring no structural distortion during the decryption process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Changing a single bit or two bits in the decryption keys leads to failed decryption, where the recovered image becomes corrupted and loses its original information.

    “In contrast, changing a single bit or two bits in the decryption keys leads to failed decryption, where the recovered image becomes corrupted and loses its original information.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proposed S-boxes demonstrate strong overall performance compared to those in the literature, with DAP matching the ideal 0.015625, competitive LAP values of 0.07813, NL values of 108 slightly below the ideal 112 and some top-performing S-boxes, SAC values of approximately 0.497 close to the ideal 0.5, and BIC values of 108 consistent and comparable to most counterparts.

    “Table 17 shows that the proposed S-boxes demonstrate strong overall performance compared to those in the literature, with excellent results in Differential Approximation Probability (DAP), matching the ideal value of 0.015625, and competitive Linear Approximation Probability (LAP) values (0.07813), outperforming many referenced S-boxes. While the Non-Linearity (NL) values (108) are slightly below”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The histogram of the encrypted augmented image shows uniform distributions, indicating successful diffusion and confusion.

    “the histograms of the encrypted augmented image (d) shows uniform distributions, indicating successful diffusion and confusion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The results confirm the algorithm's robustness in securing sensitive augmented images while preserving the integrity of the data format.

    “The results confirm the algorithm’s robustness in securing sensitive augmented images while preserving the integrity of the data format.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed algorithm's exceptionally large key space provides a robust defense against brute-force attacks, reinforcing its suitability for secure image encryption.

    “Overall, the proposed algorithm’s exceptionally large key space provides a robust defense against brute-force attacks, reinforcing its suitability for secure image encryption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed multistage chaos-based approach leveraging Fredkin logic gates and hyperchaos-induced keys significantly enhances security, scalability, and efficiency.

    “This multistage chaos-based approach, leveraging Fredkin logic gates and hyperchaos-induced keys, significantly enhances security, scalability, and efficiency, making it ideal for high-stakes satellite imagery applications where data integrity and confidentiality are paramount.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed algorithm is practical for real-time satellite image encryption while maintaining robust security.

    “demonstrating the practicality of the proposed algorithm for real-time satellite image encryption while maintaining robust security.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The reviewed literature often lacks a focus on augmenting multiple images into a single encryption process, which is critical for compressing and securing large-scale satellite data.

    “While these methods demonstrate robustness against various cryptographic attacks, they often lack a focus on augmenting multiple images into a single encryption process, which is critical for compressing and securing large-scale satellite data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    High NPCR values and reasonable UACI values confirm the sensitivity and intensity of the modifications, underscoring the effectiveness of the proposed method in securing sensitive geographic data.

    “Additionally, the high NPCR values and reasonable UACI values further confirm the sensitivity and intensity of the modifications, underscoring the effectiveness of the proposed method in securing sensitive geographic data through advanced encryption techniques.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The occlusion and noise figures demonstrate the proposed algorithm's substantial defensive properties against a range of occlusion and noise attacks, affirming its suitability for high-security satellite imaging applications.

    “Together, these figures effectively demonstrate the proposed algorithms’s substantial defensive properties against a range of occlusion and noise attacks, affirming its suitability for high-security satellite imaging applications where maintaining data integrity and confidentiality is paramount.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Entropy values close to the maximum and very low or negative correlation coefficients across the proposed method indicate robust randomness and minimal resemblance to the original, enhancing security against statistical attacks.

    “Entropy values close to the maximum and very low or negative correlation coefficients across the proposed method indicate robust randomness and minimal resemblance to the original, enhancing security against statistical attacks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Satellite images typically possess higher resolutions and larger file sizes, which necessitate encryption algorithms that are both computationally efficient and scalable.

    “First, satellite images typically possess higher resolutions and larger file sizes, which necessitate encryption algorithms that are both computationally efficient and scalable4.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Lavanya, M., Sundar, K., & Saravanan, S. Simplified image encryption algorithm (SIEA) to enhance image security in cloud storage. Multimed. Tools Appl. 83, 61313–61345, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-17969-0 (2024). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed encryption algorithm effectively randomizes pixel relationships and eliminates structural dependencies.

    “demonstrating that the proposed encryption algorithm effectively randomizes pixel relationships and eliminates structural dependencies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Satellite data often contains sensitive geographic and strategic information, which raises the bar for security against statistical and differential attacks.

    “Second, satellite data often contains sensitive geographic and strategic information (e.g., military installations, environmental monitoring zones), which raises the bar for security against statistical and differential attacks5.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Ukamaka, O. N., Nonyelum, O. F., Rajesh, P., & Sanusi, M. Multipurpose satellite image analysis for land cover classification, object detection, disaster classification and military spot identification. IUP Journal of Computer Sciences, 18(2), (2024).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The higher MSE and lower PSNR under occlusion reduce image recoverability and favor confidentiality, highlighting a trade-off with resilience to partial data loss.

    “While this reduces image recoverability and favors confidentiality, it highlights a trade-off with resilience to partial data loss.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The statistical metrics collectively validate the robustness and security of the proposed algorithm.

    “These metrics collectively validate the robustness and security of the proposed algorithm.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The uniformity of the encrypted image histogram ensures obfuscation of all visual and statistical features, protecting the augmented data from cryptographic attacks.

    “This uniformity ensures the obfuscation of all visual and statistical features, protecting the augmented data from cryptographic attacks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The encryption time results highlight the scalability of the method, making it suitable for encrypting high-resolution satellite images while maintaining practical processing times.

    “These results highlight the scalability of the method, making it suitable for encrypting high-resolution satellite images while maintaining practical processing times.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The proposed method combines multiple plain images into one before encryption, increasing process efficiency and security complexity.

    “Augmented image encryption: The method combines multiple plain images into one before encryption, increasing process efficiency and security complexity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The achieved UACI reflects strong diffusion and confirms the robustness of the proposed scheme.

    “Nonetheless, the achieved UACI still reflects strong diffusion and confirms the robustness of the proposed scheme.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The final stage of the proposed method combines encrypted streams into one image while preserving the integrity of color data.

    “The final stage combines these encrypted streams into one image while preserving the integrity of color data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The potential of quantum-inspired logic gates, such as Fredkin gates, remains largely unexplored in the domain of satellite image encryption.

    “Furthermore, the potential of quantum-inspired logic gates, such as Fredkin gates, remains largely unexplored in this domain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed algorithm demonstrates robust resistance to differential attacks and consistent performance across diverse images.

    “demonstrating robust resistance to differential attacks and consistent performance across diverse images, including benchmarks like “Mandrill” and “Peppers.””
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The uniformity of the encrypted image DFT is indicative of high entropy and randomness, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed encryption algorithm in dispersing spectral components and enhancing the security of satellite images.

    “This uniformity is indicative of high entropy and randomness in the encrypted image, which are desirable properties in secure image encryption schemes, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed encryption algorithm in dispersing the spectral components and enhancing the security of satellite images.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The proposed S-boxes strike a strong balance between cryptographic strength and practical performance, making them viable for secure image encryption applications, with room for minor improvements in NL and SAC.

    “Overall, the proposed S-boxes strike a strong balance between cryptographic strength and practical performance, making them viable for secure image encryption applications, with room for minor improvements in NL and SAC.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The integration of hyperchaos keys and dynamic Hill cipher introduces additional layers of security, dynamically adapting to ensure consistent protection.

    “Hyperchaos keys and dynamic Hill cipher: The integration of these elements introduces additional layers of security, dynamically adapting to ensure consistent protection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Gauss Circle map sequence passed all 16 NIST tests and demonstrated robust defense against entropy attacks.

    “The Gauss Circle map sequence successfully passed all 16 NIST tests and demonstrated a robust defense against entropy attacks38.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Suryadi, M., Satria, Y., & Hadidulqawi, A. Implementation of the gauss-circle map for encrypting and embedding simultaneously on digital image and digital text. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1821(1). IOP Publishing, p. 012037 (2021). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The image augmentation step increases memory usage, which may pose challenges for resource-constrained environments.

    “The image augmentation step increases memory usage, which may pose challenges for resource-constrained environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The reliance on high-precision chaotic systems can complicate hardware implementation.

    “The reliance on high-precision chaotic systems can complicate hardware implementation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
38 of 38

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The images from the USC-SIPI and MAR20 databases are representative of satellite images for evaluating the proposed scheme.

    “Test images are sourced from 2 online collections: the USC-SIPI database46 and the MAR20 database47.”
1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Two different key-space sizes are claimed

    Major

    The introduction gives the proposed scheme a key space of 2^{4464}, while the key-space analysis and comparison give 2^{5102}. These are materially different security claims for the same method.

  • A Table 13 PSNR conflicts with the paper's PSNR formula

    Minor

    Using the stated PSNR formula and MSE of 478.21 gives approximately 21.33 dB, not 12.5582 dB. Thus the Mandrill reference row's MSE and PSNR cannot both be correct.

  • Proposed encryption time is attributed to different computers

    Minor

    The performance evaluation says its tests used an Intel i7-7500U with 8 GB of RAM. Table 16 attributes the proposed method's identical 0.281687-second result to an AMD Ryzen 5600H with 16 GB.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Ukamaka, O. N., Nonyelum, O. F., Rajesh, P., & Sanusi, M. Multipurpose satellite image analysis for land cover classification, object detection, disaster classification and military spot identification. IUP Journal of Computer Sciences, 18(2), (2024).
  2. VAMSI, D., & CH, P. R. Color image encryption based on arnold cat map-elliptic curve key and a hill cipher. J. Theor. Appl. Inf. Technol., 102(9), 4116–4127 (2024).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Alexan, W., Maher, E. A., Mamdouh, E., Youssef, M., & Ehab, N.
Affiliations
German University in Cairo (EG)
ORCID
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-10-27
Volume
15
Issue
1
Pages
37345-37345
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-025-22008-z
PMC
PMC12559233
OpenAlex
W4415648175
Semantic Scholar
9b56a0327ed774ac5f8665d77504954b098bf02e
Cited by
20
References
48
Citations by year
2026: 20
FWCI
7.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
German University in Cairo
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Computer Science and Engineering
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
Keywords
image encryption, satellite imagery, chaos-based cryptography, hyperchaos, image augmentation, confusion and diffusion, Hill cipher, NPCR and UACI, differential attack resistance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-21.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-21.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review