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β-Catenin destruction complex: insights and questions from a structural perspective
Abstract
At the heart of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway is the beta-catenin destruction complex, which functions in the absence of Wnt signaling to keep the cytosolic and nuclear levels of beta-catenin very low by promoting the phosphorylation and ubiquitination of beta-catenin. Structural studies, combined with other experimental approaches, have begun to provide important insights into the mechanism of the destruction complex. We suggest a working model for the destruction complex based on the existing structural and experimental data, and focus on the questions that this model and other studies have raised about the function of the complex in both the normal and Wnt-inhibited states.
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“Next, the β-catenin proteins undergo proteasomal destruction [259, 260], which is greatly accelerated by the presence of IDRs in addition to the bound ubiquitin signal [262].”
From Intrinsically disordered proteins play diverse roles in cell signaling (2022) · cites this paper as [260]
In the citing paper
“Prior to Wnt signaling, the transcription factor β-catenin is maintained at low levels by the β-catenin destruction complex, which is an assembly of the 852 residue mostly disordered scaffold protein axin, the 2,843 residue massively disordered protein adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), and the three mostly structured proteins β-catenin, casein kinase Ia (CKI-a), and glycogen synthetase kinase 3b (”
From Intrinsically disordered proteins play diverse roles in cell signaling (2022) · cites this paper as [260]
In the citing paper
“The two kinases phosphorylate residues within a long IDR at β-catenin’s amino terminus [259, 260].”
From Intrinsically disordered proteins play diverse roles in cell signaling (2022) · cites this paper as [260]
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BackgroundHPV16 E6 and E6AP differentially cooperate to stimulate or augment Wnt signaling
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“Extensive evidence indicates that GSK3β is also an integral part of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and that GSK3β-dependent phosphorylation of β-catenin leads to proteasomal degradation of the complex [144].”
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“GSK3 phosphorylates β-catenin at S33/S37/T41, leading to proteasome-mediated degradation of β-catenin (Kimelman and Xu, 2006; Liu et al., 2002).”
BackgroundAnalysis of dishevelled localization and function in the early sea urchin embryo
Leonard, J. D., & Ettensohn, C. A. (2007) · Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.02.041 · Cited by 41
“According to current models, in the absence of a Wnt signal, β-catenin is part of a multiprotein complex with Axin, glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), the tumor suppressor gene product adenomatous polyposis coli protein (APC), and other proteins (Hart et al., 1998; Kimelman and Xu, 2006; Kishida et al., 1999; Lee et…”
Specific features of ß-catenin-mutated hepatocellular carcinomas
Dantzer, C., Dif, L., Vaché, J., Basbous, S., Billottet, C., & Moreau, V. (2024) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/s41416-024-02849-7 · Cited by 42
KCTD1 Suppresses Canonical Wnt Signaling Pathway by Enhancing β-catenin Degradation
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“In the absence of WNT ligand, cytoplasmic b-catenin is recruited by a group of proteins known as the “destruction complex” composed of Axin, the tumor suppressor APC, glycogen synthase kinase 3b, and casein kinase I (Kimelman and Xu, 2006).”
BackgroundDaskalopoulos, E. P., Hermans, K. C. M., Janssen, B. J., & Blankesteijn, W. M. (2012) · Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.tcm.2012.09.010 · Cited by 37
“In this cell compartment, b-catenin binds to T-cell factor/Lymphoid enhancer factor (TCF/LEF) proteins and activates the transcription of Wnt target genes (B—‘‘ON mode’’; Kikuchi et al., 2007; Kimelman and Xu, 2006).”
BackgroundSignaling Pathways Involved in Antidepressant-Induced Cell Proliferation and Synaptic Plasticity
Pilar-Cuéllar, F., Vidal, R., Díaz, Á., Castro, E., Dos-Anjos, S., Vargas, V. I., Romero, B., & Valdizán, E. M. (2014) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/13816128113196660736 · Cited by 37
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“-Catenin accumulation due to genetic mutations in Axin, APC, or -catenin has been diagnosed in several other tumor types but is unusual in breast cancer (26).”
BackgroundInfluentialZhang, C.-H., Liu, H., Zhao, W., Zhao, W., Zhou, H., & Shao, R. (2021) · Acta Pharmacologica Sinica · doi:10.1038/s41401-020-00598-w · Cited by 40
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“Thus, Axin interacts with β-catenin bringing it closer to CK1, which phosphorylates it at serine 45, whereas GSK-3β phosphorylates threonine 41 and serine 37 and 33 [38,39], addressing it for ubiquitination by the protein β-Transducin repeat-containing protein E3-ubiquitin ligase (β-TrCP), and further degradation via…”
BackgroundWang, L., Liu, X., Gusev, E., Wang, C., & Fagotto, F. (2014) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.131045 · Cited by 37
“…Received 14 March 2013; Accepted 4 January 2014 Jo ur na l o f C el l S ci en ce 2004) suggested a different model, in which APC helps phosphorylated b-catenin to dissociate from axin, creating a catalytic cycle of binding and release of the substrate (Kimelman and Xu, 2006).”
BackgroundA Negative Allosteric Modulator of WNT Receptor Frizzled 4 Switches into an Allosteric Agonist
Riccio, G., Bottone, S., Regina, G. L., Badolati, N., Passacantilli, S., Rossi, G. B., Accardo, A., Dentice, M., Silvestri, R., Novellino, E., et al. (2018) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.7b01087 · Cited by 36
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Tumor promoter TPA activates Wnt/β-catenin signaling in a casein kinase 1-dependent manner
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“Upon activation, β -catenin is able to escape from the destruction complex comprising APC, Axin and glycogen synthase kinase-3 β (GSK-3 β ), which phosphorylates β -catenin and targets it for degradation via the ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal pathway (57,58).”
Li, Q., Ye, L., Guo, W., Wang, M., Huang, S., & Peng, X. (2017) · Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/s13046-017-0560-y · Cited by 34
“Axin, GSK-3β and APC cause a robust suppression in the activity of Wnt/β-catenin signaling by forming a destruction complex and inducing β-catenin degradation [25].”
BackgroundWang, Y., Lei, L., Zheng, Y., Zhang, L., Li, Z., Shen, H., Jiang, G., Zhang, X., Wang, E., & Xu, H. (2018) · Cancer Science · doi:10.1111/cas.13614 · Cited by 34
“When the Wnt signal is weak, bcatenin is incorporated in a destruction complex that contains glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), axin 1 and casein kinase 1, which results in the phosphorylation of b-catenin and its degradation by a ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal pathway.(21) However, i…”
BackgroundExpression and Manipulation of the APC-β-Catenin Pathway During Peripheral Neuron Regeneration
Duraikannu, A., Martinez, J. A., Chandrasekhar, A., & Zochodne, D. W. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-31167-1 · Cited by 34
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Neratinib augments the lethality of [regorafenib + sildenafil]
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“…drug exposures; mean ± SEM). siRNA: small interfering RNA protein; a gene frequently mutated inactive in colon cancer (Fiedler, Mendoza‐Topaz, Rutherford, Mieszczanek, & Bienz, 2011; Gottardi & Peifer, 2008; Kimelman & Xu, 2006; Liu, Xing, Hinds, Zheng, & Xu, 2006; MacDonald, Tamai, & He, 2009).”
Protein Kinase PKN1 Represses Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling in Human Melanoma Cells
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“Specifically, in the absence of Wnt stimulus, -catenin is constitutively degraded by the proteasome following its phosphorylation by the kinases casein kinase 1 (encoded byCSNK1A1) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) (11).”
Real-time imaging of β-catenin dynamics in cells and living mice
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“Since only a small pool of GSK-3b participates in the canonical Wnt pathway (Lee et al., 2003), it may not be possible to detect changes in GSK-3b under these conditions.”
BackgroundInfluentialCoskun, M., Olsen, A. K., Bzorek, M., Holck, S., Engel, U., Nielsen, O. H., & Troelsen, J. T. (2014) · Carcinogenesis · doi:10.1093/carcin/bgu037 · Cited by 32
“This complex consists of the core proteins, AXIN2, APC, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK3β) and casein kinase-1 (33).”
Persistent induction of goblet cell differentiation in the airways: Therapeutic approaches
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“This destruction complex, consisting of APC, Axin, casein kinase 1 α and GSK-3 β (Kimelman & Xu, 2006), targets β -catenin for phosphorylation and subsequent ubiquitination in the absence of WNT ligands, but is functionally repressed upon WNT activation. β -Catenin signaling in airway epithelial cells is key to di ff e…”
BackgroundThe Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in the tumor microenvironment of hepatocellular carcinoma
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Canonical Wnt signaling enhances pro-inflammatory response to titanium by macrophages
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BackgroundReview: Experimental models for Barrett's esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma
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Tetraspanin CD 63 acts as a pro‐metastatic factor via β‐catenin stabilization
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“β-catenin is sequestered to this multiprotein site where it is phosphorylated at the N-terminal region (Ser33/ Ser37/Thr41) by CK1 and GSK3-β, marking it for degradation by the proteasome [4].”
BackgroundArdeshirylajimi, A., Golchin, A., Khojasteh, A., & Bandehpour, M. (2018) · Artificial Cells Nanomedicine and Biotechnology · doi:10.1080/21691401.2018.1521816 · Cited by 31
“In the absence of Wnt, cytoplasmic b-catenin protein is continuously kept low through interactions with the Axin complex, including scaffolding protein Axin, casein kinase 1 (CK1), glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), and tumour suppressor adenomatous polyposis coli gene product (APC) [5,6].”
BackgroundYuan, X., Xue, J., Tan, Y., Yang, Q., Qin, Z., Bao, X., Li, S., Pan, L., Jiang, Z., Wang, Y., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.736627 · Cited by 31
“Aberrant Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation is evident in an estimated 90% of CRC tumors, and this pathway is therefore thought to play a central role in the development and malignant growth of such tumors (Kimelman and Xu, 2006).”
BackgroundTopoisomerase IIα mediates TCF-dependent epithelial–mesenchymal transition in colon cancer
Zhou, Q., Abraham, A. D., Li, L., Babalmorad, A., Bagby, S. M., Arcaroli, J. J., Hansen, R. J., Valeriote, F. A., Gustafson, D. L., Schaack, J. B., et al. (2016) · Oncogene · doi:10.1038/onc.2016.29 · Cited by 31
β-Catenin: A Key Molecule in Osteoblast Differentiation
Wróbel, E., Wojdasiewicz, P., Mikulska, A., & Szukiewicz, D. (2025) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom15071043 · Cited by 33
“This complex functions as a molecular scaffold that enables the recruitment of kinases responsible for sequential phosphorylation of β -catenin [60].”
Casein Kinase 1α as a Regulator of Wnt-Driven Cancer
Shen, C., Nayak, A., Meléndez, R. A., Wynn, D. T., Jackson, J., Lee, E. N., Ahmed, Y. F., & Robbins, D. J. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21165940 · Cited by 31
Ramos‐García, P., & González‐Moles, M. Á. (2022) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers14030479 · Cited by 30
“These phosphorylation events create a binding site on β-catenin for β-trcp E3 ubiquitin ligase that in turn catalyses the proteosomal degradation of β-catenin by ubiquitinylation, removing it from the cytoplasm [5].”
BackgroundMultiple Actions of Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase in Cell Death Regulation
Palamarchuk, A. I., Kovalenko, E. I., & Streltsova, M. A. (2023) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines11041091 · Cited by 31
“In turn, activated GSK3ß is able to degrade β-catenin [84] and to activate the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, which is normally blocked by the Akt kinase.”
BackgroundYuan, G., Zhang, B., Yang, S., Jin, L., Datta, A., Bae, S., Chen, X., & Datta, P. K. (2016) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.7532 · Cited by 31
Inflammation and proliferation – a causal event of host response to Helicobacter pylori infection
Subhash, V. V., & Ho, B. (2015) · Microbiology · doi:10.1099/mic.0.000066 · Cited by 29
Kolben, T., Peröbner, I., Fernsebner, K., Lechner, F., Geißler, C., Ruiz-Heinrich, L., Capovilla, S., Jochum, M., & Neth, P. (2012) · Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1515/hsz-2012-0186 · Cited by 30
Axin phosphorylation in both Wnt-off and Wnt-on states requires the tumor suppressor APC
Tacchelly‐Benites, O., Wang, Z., Yang, E., Benchabane, H., Tian, A., Randall, M. P., & Ahmed, Y. F. (2018) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007178 · Cited by 29
Rao, J., Yang, C., Lu, H., Lu, H., Yang, S., Zhuang, L., Cheng, F., Zhang, F., Cheng, F., & Wang, X. (2018) · International Immunology · doi:10.1093/intimm/dxaa002 · Cited by 30
Structural Analysis of the 14-3-3ζ/Chibby Interaction Involved in Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling
Killoran, R. C., Fan, J., Yang, D., Shilton, B. H., & Choy, W. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123934 · Cited by 29
“Activation of the Wnt pathway promotes the stabilization of the transcriptional co-activator β-catenin within the cytoplasm, allowing it to translocate to the nucleus and bind to TCF/LEF (T cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor) transcription factors to activate Wnt target genes [8,9,10,11].”
BackgroundTimmermans‐Sprang, E. P. M., Gracanin, A., & Mol, J. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2017.00053 · Cited by 29
“This phosphorylated β -catenin is then targeted by the ubiquitination complex, resulting in subsequent proteosomal degradation (99).”
Schöckel, L., Woischke, C., Surendran, S. A., Michl, M., Schiergens, T. S., Hölscher, A., Glass, F., Kreissl, P., Klauschen, F., Günther, M., et al. (2024) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-024-11985-5 · Cited by 28
“Strong immuno-histochemical staining of β-catenin is well known to correlate with poorer prognosis for patients with CRC, as it is a widely accepted hallmark of an activated canonical Wnt-signaling pathway [32–34].”
BackgroundModeling the Effect of APC Truncation on Destruction Complex Function in Colorectal Cancer Cells
Barua, D., & Hlavacek, W. S. (2013) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003217 · Cited by 31
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“In this way, the cytoplasmatic and especially β-catenin nuclear concentration is kept low in absence of Wnt ligands [92].”
BackgroundCritical review on anti-obesity effects of phytochemicals through Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway
Luo, J., Yu, Z., Tovar, J., Nilsson, A. C., & Xu, B. (2022) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106461 · Cited by 28
Yang, X., Huang, S., Lo, M., Mizumoto, K., Sawa, H., Xu, W., Robertson, S. M., & Lin, R. (2011) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.069054 · Cited by 28
“5D,E; Graham et al., 2001; Graham et al., 2000; Kimelman and Xu, 2006; RESEARCH ARTICLE Development 138 (19) D E V E LO P M E N T Xu and Kimelman, 2007).”
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Yajima, I., Colombo, S., Puig, I., Champeval, D., Kumasaka, M. Y., Belloir, E., Bonaventure, J., Mark, M. P., Yamamoto, H., Taketo, M. M., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053183 · Cited by 28
“The resulting modified b-catenin is reportedly more stable [32].”
BackgroundYefi, R., Ponce, D. P., Niechi, I., Silva-Pavez, E., Cabello, P., Rodríguez, D. A., Marcelain, K., Armisén, R., Quest, A. F. G., & Tapia, J. C. (2011) · Journal of Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1002/jcb.23247 · Cited by 28
“phosphorylates several sites at the N-terminal end of b-catenin, which targets it for proteasomal degradation [Kimelman and Xu, 2006].”
BackgroundInfluentialBili Inhibits Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling by Regulating the Recruitment of Axin to LRP6
Kategaya, L. S., Changkakoty, B., Biechele, T. L., Conrad, W. H., Kaykas, A., DasGupta, R., & Moon, R. T. (2009) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006129 · Cited by 28
“promotes the phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and proteosomal degradation of b-catenin [2].”
BackgroundMultiple isoforms of β-TrCP display differential activities in the regulation of Wnt signaling
SEO, E., Kim, H., Kim, R. J. A., Yun, S., KIM, M., Han, J., Costantini, F. D., & Jho, E. (2008) · Cellular Signalling · doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2008.09.009 · Cited by 28
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“undergoes degradation (Kimelman and Xu, 2006).”
The Role of Activin/Nodal and Wnt Signaling in Endoderm Formation
Payne, C. M., King, J., & Hay, D. C. (2011) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385961-7.00010-x · Cited by 28
A high-throughput assay pipeline for specific targeting of frizzled GPCRs in cancer
Shaw, H. V., Koval, A., & Katanaev, V. L. (2018) · Methods in cell biology · doi:10.1016/bs.mcb.2018.08.006 · Cited by 28
Signaling pathways as linear transmitters
Nunns, H., & Goentoro, L. A. (2018) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.33617 · Cited by 30
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Wu, J., Li, J., Huang, B., Dong, S., Wu, L., Shen, X., & Zheng, Z. (2024) · Cancer Imaging · doi:10.1186/s40644-024-00768-7 · Cited by 27
“Meanwhile, Wnt and JAK-STAT signaling pathways were also enriched, and GO analysis for cell component indicated that DEGs were particularly enriched in β-catenin destruction complex which is the heart of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway [51].”
BackgroundNon-canonical roles of connexins
Campenhout, R. V., Cooreman, A., Leroy, K., Rusiecka, O. M., Brantegem, P. V., Annaert, P., Muyldermans, S., Devoogdt, N., Cogliati, B., Kwak, B. R., et al. (2020) · Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2020.03.002 · Cited by 27
A RAC-GEF network critical for early intestinal tumourigenesis
Pickering, K. A., Gilroy, K. L., Cassidy, J., Fey, S. K., Najumudeen, A. K., Zeiger, L. B., Vincent, D. F., Gay, D. M., Johansson, J., Fordham, R. P., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-20255-4 · Cited by 27
Metadata
- Authors
- Kimelman, D., & Xu, W.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kimelman, D
- ORCID
- Venue
- Oncogene
- Published
- 2006-12-04
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 57
- Pages
- 7482-7491
- ISSN
- 0950-9232 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5594
- OpenAlex
- W2072335762
- Cited by
- 628
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 40
- FWCI
- 1.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oncogene (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Cancer Institute (CA 90351, R01CA090351)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD027262, HD27262)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Wnt/β-catenin signaling in development and cancer
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Signaling Pathways in Disease
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Ubiquitin and proteasome pathways
- Keywords
- β-catenin destruction complex, Wnt/β-catenin signaling, β-catenin phosphorylation, β-catenin ubiquitination, protein complex structure, Wnt signaling inhibition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cell Nucleus, Colonic Neoplasms, Cytosol, Humans, Models, Biological, Phosphorylation, Protein Conformation, Stem Cells, Ubiquitin, beta Catenin
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