Methodological issues in grounded theory
Open accessAbstract
Examination of the qualitative methodological literature shows that there appear to be conflicting opinions and unresolved issues regarding the nature and process of grounded theory. Researchers proposing to utilize this method would therefore be wise to consider these conflicting opinions. This paper therefore identifies and attempts to address four key issues, namely, sampling, creativity and reflexivity, the use of literature, and precision within grounded theory. The following recommendations are made. When utilizing a grounded method researchers need to consider their research question, clarify what level of theory is likely to be induced from their study, and then decide when they intend to access and introduce the second body of literature. They should acknowledge that in the early stages of data collection, some purposeful sampling appears to occur. In their search for conceptually dense theory, grounded theory researchers may wish to free themselves from the constraints that limit their use of creativity and tacit knowledge. Furthermore, the interests of researchers might be served by attention to issues of precision including, avoiding method slurring, ensuring theoretical coding occurs, and using predominantly one method of grounded theory while explaining and describing any deviation away from this chosen method. Such mindfulness and the resulting methodological rigour is likely to increase the overall quality of the inquiry and enhance the credibility of the findings.
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Grounded theory's bottom-up approach to theory development aims to minimize the influence of prior knowledge and researchers' subjective biases.
“This bottom-up approach to theory development aims to minimize the influence of prior knowledge and researchers’ subjective biases (36).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [36]
The study reached theoretical saturation, with all nodes sufficiently dense and relationships among nodes adequately described.
“Therefore, we conclude that all nodes in this study are sufficiently dense, and the relationships among nodes are adequately described, reaching theoretical saturation (36).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [36]
Grounded theory is generated from data rather than formulated prior to data.
“It is a theory generated from the data, rather than a theory formulated prior to the data (36).”
From Caring alone: older adult care burdens, practices, and structural imbalances among China's one-child generation (2025) · cites this paper as [36]
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An empirical investigation of the influence of persona with personality traits on conceptual design
Anvari, F., Richards, D., Hitchens, M., Babar, M. A., Tran, H. M. T., & Busch, P. A. (2017) · Journal of Systems and Software · doi:10.1016/j.jss.2017.09.020 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Reflecting on the Role of Literature in Qualitative Public Administration Research
Tummers, L. G., & Karsten, N. (2011) · Administration & Society · doi:10.1177/0095399711414121 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“The two approaches share essential defining characteristics that make them grounded theory approaches (see also Benoliel, 1996; Bryant & Charmaz, 2007; Cutcliffe, 2000; Melia, 1996; Walker & Myrick, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKeeping the Unit Safe: A Grounded Theory Study
Johnson, M. E., & Delaney, K. R. (2006) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/1078390306286440 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“As the study progressed and the core category was identified, staff and patients were invited to be interviewed because their knowledge filled in gaps in the developing categories, helped refine the emerging ideas,ormaximizedtherangeandscopeofdata obtained (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986; Cutcliffe, 2000; Glaser, 1978; Glase…”
BackgroundExploring and Understanding Online Assistance for Problem Gamblers: The Pathways Disclosure Model
Cooper, G. (2004) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/prism/9505 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“This approach “both describes and explains the system or behaviour under study and consequently is a methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed” ( Cutcliffe, 2000, p. 1477 ).”
MethodClegg, A. (2003) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2702.2003.00724.x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Advancing the pharmacist’s role in promoting the appropriate and safe use of dietary supplements
Harnett, J., Ung, C. O. L., Hu, H., Sultani, M., & Desselle, S. P. (2019) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2019.04.018 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Delaktighet i skolans vardagsarbete
Elvstrand, H. (2009) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Ganesha, H. R., & Aithal, P. S. (2022) · International Journal of Management Technology and Social Sciences · doi:10.47992/ijmts.2581.6012.0233 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Lafreniere, K. C., Deshpande, S., Bjørnlund, H., & Hunter, M. G. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.06.046 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Learning in International Practice Placement Education: A Grounded Theory Study
Barker, A., Kinsella, E. A., & Bossers, A. M. (2010) · British Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.4276/030802210x12629548272709 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Bray, L., Kirk, S. A., & Callery, P. (2013) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.12110 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Theoretical sampling focused on refining ideas, developing categories and adding to the fullness of the understanding of the concepts (Cutcliffe 2000), by recruiting participants with different characteristics and experiences of surgery and returning to the young people and their parents already interviewed to collect…”
BackgroundAn exploration of Indonesian nurses’ perceptions of barriers to paediatric pain management
Mediani, . S., Duggan, R., Chapman, R., Hutton, A. E., & Shields, L. E. (2017) · Journal of Child Health Care · doi:10.1177/1367493517715146 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Data saturation determined sampling size, and data collection was ceased when information from participants became repetitive (Cutcliffe, 2000; Schreiber, 2001).”
BackgroundLife with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: striving for ‘controlled co‐existence’
Cooney, A., Mee, L., Casey, D., Murphy, K., Kirwan, C., Burke, E., Conway, Y., Healy, D., Mooney, B., Murphy, J., et al. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2012.04285.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ung, C. O. L., Harnett, J., Hu, H., & Desselle, S. P. (2019) · American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy · doi:10.1093/ajhp/zxz079 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Desselle, S. P. (2015) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2015.10.002 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Rural Latino health and the built environment: a systematic review
Stone, G. A., Fernandez, M., & DeSantiago, A. (2019) · Ethnicity and Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2019.1606899 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Grounded theory is an inductive, data-driven, and contextualized qualitative approach that requires in-depth, reflexive data collection and identifies emerging patterns, processes, and relationships (Cutcliffe 2000; Dunne 2011).”
BackgroundCatallo, C., Jack, S. M., Ciliska, D. K., & MacMillan, H. L. (2012) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06128.x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“To explain these findings, grounded theory was considered the best qualitative method to understand these quantitative sub-analysis results due to its ability to both describe and explain a system of behaviour and seek, as an end result, a substantive mid-range theory grounded in the data (Cutcliffe 2000).”
MethodGrounding osteopathic research – Introducing grounded theory
Thomson, O. P., Petty, N. J., & Scholes, J. D. (2013) · International journal of osteopathic medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ijosm.2013.07.010 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The impact of nurses’ values on the prevention of pressure ulcers
Samuriwo, R. (2010) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2010.19.sup5.77702 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The perceived shortcomings of Glaserian and Straussian grounded theory have resulted in a number of modifications to the data analysis, interpretation, reflexivity and the relationship between researcher and participants in grounded theory (Cutcliffe 2000a; Hall and Callery 2001; Llewellyn 2005).”
BackgroundBland, A. J., & Tobbell, J. (2016) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2016.05.011 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Vandewalle, J., Debyser, B., Beeckman, D., Vandecasteele, T., Deproost, E., Hecke, A. V., & Verhaeghe, S. T. L. (2017) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.12332 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Brod, M. I., Waldman, L. T., Smith, A. R., & Karpf, D. B. (2019) · Patient · doi:10.1007/s40271-019-00388-5 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Grounded Theory: Exploiting the Potential for Occupational Therapy
Stanley, M. J., & Cheek, J. (2003) · British Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1177/030802260306600403 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“To avoid ‘method slurring’, researchers are advised to make explicit which version of grounded theory they are using, as well as justifying and describing any deviation from the chosen approach (Cutcliffe 2000).”
A Practical Guide and Assessment on Using ChatGPT to Conduct Grounded Theory: Tutorial
Yue, Y., Liu, D., Lv, Y., Hao, J., & Cui, P. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/70122 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Sibbel, A. M. (2010) · Australasian Journal of Paramedicine · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Grounded Theory in Practice: Novice Researchers' Choice Between Straussian and Glaserian
M. Alammar, F., Intezari, A., Cardow, A., & J. Pauleen, D. (2019) · Journal of Management Inquiry · doi:10.1177/1056492618770743 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“As there is no limit set on the number of informants needed to begin a grounded theory study (Cutcliffe, 2000), data analysis began with the data from the first four informants.”
Inappropriate sexual behaviour and dementia: An exploration of staff experiences
Hayward, L. E., Robertson, N., & Knight, C. (2012) · Dementia · doi:10.1177/1471301211434673 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“regarding their area of interest (Cutliffe, 2000; Henwood & Pidgeon, 2003; Meyrick, 2006).”
BackgroundThe use of grounded theory to study interaction
Maijala, H., Paavilainen, E., & Åstedt-Kurki, P. M. (2004) · Nurse Researcher · doi:10.7748/nr2004.01.11.2.40.c5921 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
The transition into adulthood for children with a severe intellectual disability: parents’ views
Biswas, S., Tickle, A., Moghaddam, N. G., & Almack, K. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2016.1138598 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“…of an adult2 with a severe intellectual disability; (ii) could read, write, and speak English; and (iii) had witnessed their child’s transition into adulthood — this was necessary as little experience would limit the data and subsequent theory of the phenomenon being studied (Cutcliffe, 2000).”
BackgroundHelping or hindering: the role of nurse managers in the transfer of practice development learning
Currie, K., Tolson, D., & Booth, J. (2007) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2834.2007.00804.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Pierce, D., Munier, V., & Myers, C. T. (2009) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.63.3.273 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“A grounded theory approach of constant comparison was used (Charmaz, 2005; Cutliff, 2000; Glaser & Strauss, 1967).”
Patients Know Best: Qualitative Study on How Families Use Patient-Controlled Personal Health Records
Schneider, H., Hill, S., & Blandford, A. (2016) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.4652 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Within both cycles of data gathering and analysis, we adopted a Grounded Theory approach, as defined by Strauss and Corbin [41].”
- Authors
- Cutcliffe, J. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cutcliffe, John R.
- Venue
- Journal of Advanced Nursing
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2000-06
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1476-1484
- ISSN
- 0309-2402 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2648
- OpenAlex
- W2165793557
- Cited by
- 642
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 5.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- works.bepress.com
- Locations
- Journal of Advanced Nursing (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CORE Scholar (Wright State University) (submittedVersion)
- Journal of Bioresource Management (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative Research Methods and Applications
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Qualitative Research Methods and Ethics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Sociology and Education Studies
- Keywords
- grounded theory, qualitative research methodology, sampling, creativity, reflexivity, tacit knowledge, methodological quality, nursing research
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Nursing, Nursing Theory, Nursing Methodology Research
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