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Cited by 385Tactile and Sensory InteractionsEvolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorPrimate Behavior and Ecology

Topography of social touching depends on emotional bonds between humans

Open access
Suvilehto, Juulia T., Glerean, Enrico, Dunbar, Robin I. M., Hari, Riitta, Nummenmaa, Lauri·2015·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1073/pnas.1519231112PMC PMC4653180
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Abstract

Significance: Touch is a powerful tool for communicating positive emotions. However, it has remained unknown to what extent social touch would maintain and establish social bonds. We asked a total of 1,368 people from five countries to reveal, using an Internet-based topographical self-reporting tool, those parts of their body that they would allow relatives, friends, and strangers to touch. These body regions formed relationship-specific maps in which the total area was directly related to the strength of the emotional bond between the participant and the touching person. Cultural influences were minor. We suggest that these relation-specific bodily patterns of social touch constitute an important mechanism supporting the maintenance of human social bonds.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Across five countries, the bodily area people allow others to touch scales linearly with the strength of their emotional bond to the toucher. Relationship-specific touch maps were largely consistent across cultures, suggesting social touch as a mechanism for maintaining human social bonds.

Key findings

  • In experiment 2 (*N* = 1,368 from Finland, France, Italy, Russia, and the United Kingdom), touchability index depended linearly on emotional bond across all tested countries, with mean *r*² = 0.54; when data were collapsed by bond strength, average emotional bond explained 92% of touchability-index variance across cultures.
  • Touch-area maps were relationship-specific: partners could touch almost anywhere, close acquaintances and relatives over the head and upper torso, and strangers only the hands; genitals and buttocks formed taboo zones for less close relationships.
  • Time since last meeting was only weakly related to touchability (*r* = −0.08), whereas pleasantness of touch correlated positively with touchability (*r* = 0.66) and with emotional bond (*r* = 0.77).
  • Experiment 3 found relationship-dependent touch maps correlated most strongly with hedonic sensitivity (*r* = 0.45), then tactile (*r* = 0.38), then nociceptive (*r* = 0.21) sensitivity maps.

Methods

  • Online self-report studies: experiment 1 (*N* = 91 Finnish volunteers) asked reasons for social touch; experiment 2 (*N* = 1,368) used the emBODY tool to paint bodily regions where each social-network member would be allowed to touch the participant; experiment 3 (*N* = 76 Finnish volunteers) mapped tactile, nociceptive, and hedonic sensitivity.
  • Participants rated emotional bond (1–10), pleasantness of touch (1–10), and lapse since last meeting each network member; social-network layers ranged from family to strangers.
  • Analyses included mass univariate *t* tests with FDR correction, *k*-means clustering (*k* = 6), Mantel tests, linear regression, and correlations between touchability and bond, pleasantness, lapse, and sensitivity maps.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the study was based on self-reports and may not directly translate to real-life touching behavior, though the authors argue consistency with observational research makes this feasible.
  • The paper states that Internet-based sampling yielded relatively young, well-educated participants and more female than male subjects, and that the tested countries are primarily Western cultures, so universality across all cultures cannot be confirmed.
  • The paper states the data are correlational and cannot infer whether increased social touching leads to stronger emotional bonds or vice versa; children were also excluded from analyses because of small numbers.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1073/pnas.1519231112

Cites

44 of 44 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

  • Findingown data

    Close acquaintances and family members were touched for more reasons than less familiar individuals.

    “Close acquaintances and family members were touched for more reasons than less familiar individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The total bodily area where touching was allowed was independent of when the toucher was last encountered.

    “but independent of when that person was last encountered”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “Frequency of social contact with an individual did not predict the area available for social touch”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Lapse since last meeting someone was only weakly correlated with TI, bond, or experienced pleasantness of touch.

    “However, lapse since last meeting someone was only weakly correlated with TI, bond, or experienced pleasantness of touch.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Negative forms of touch (punishing, hurting, scaring) were rare.

    “negative forms of touch (punishing, hurting, scaring) were rare”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Female subjects reported, on average, higher TIs across all members of their social network than males did, with the exception of female acquaintances and female strangers.

    “Moreover, female subjects reported, on average, higher TIs across all members of their social network than males did, with the exception of female acquaintances and female strangers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 18
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The TI was positively correlated with the experienced pleasantness of touch, and the more pleasant a touch by an individual was felt, the larger body surface that individual was allowed to touch.

    “The TI was indeed positively correlated with the experienced pleasantness of touch, and the more pleasant a touch by an individual was felt, the larger body surface that individual was allowed to touch.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The sex of the participant and the toucher significantly influenced the TIs.

    “Finally, the sex of the participant and the toucher significantly influenced the TIs”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    TAM-based social networks were concordant, and the social network members clustered consistently across different cultures.

    “TAM-based social networks were concordant, and the social network members clustered consistently across different cultures, which further corroborates the relative consistency of social touch across the studied cultures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The effects of emotional bond on TI were observed across a wide range of relationships ranging from romantic partners to distant acquaintances, but were independent of subjects' age.

    “These effects were observed across a wide range of relationships ranging from romantic partners to distant acquaintances, but they were independent of subjects’ age.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In all tested cultures, the higher the emotional bond, the larger the bodily area available for touching, with no statistically significant differences in the slopes of the regression lines between cultures.

    “In all tested cultures, the higher the emotional bond, the larger the bodily area available for touching, with no statistically significant differences in the slopes of the regression lines between cultures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Female, rather than opposite-sex, touch was, in general, evaluated as more pleasant, and it was consequently allowed on larger bodily areas.

    “Female, rather than opposite-sex, touch was, in general, evaluated as more pleasant, and it was consequently allowed on larger bodily areas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Relationship-specific TAMs were concordant across the range of tested countries, and the culture-specific TAMs differed mainly with respect to the mean area available for touching.

    “Relationship-specific TAMs were concordant across the range of tested countries, and the culture-specific TAMs differed mainly with respect to the mean area available for touching.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Emotionally closer individuals in inner layers of the social network were allowed to touch wider bodily areas and for more reasons, whereas touching by strangers was primarily limited to the hands and upper torso.

    “As expected, emotionally closer individuals in inner layers of the social network were allowed to touch wider bodily areas and for more reasons, whereas touching by strangers was primarily limited to the hands and upper torso.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The mean TI (constant term of the regression line) varied across cultures, with the United Kingdom reaching a TI of 0 at emotional bond level of 2, whereas the corresponding value for Finland, France, Italy, and Russia was 0-0.5.

    “However, the mean TI (i.e., the constant term of the regression line) varied across cultures, with the United Kingdom reaching a TI of 0 (no touch allowed) already at emotional bond level of 2, whereas the corresponding value for Finland, France, Italy, and Russia was 0–0.5.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The partner was allowed to touch basically anywhere over the body; closest acquaintances and relatives over the head and upper torso; strangers were restricted to touch only the hands.

    “The partner was allowed to touch basically anywhere over the body, closest acquaintances and relatives over the head and upper torso, whereas strangers were restricted to touch only the hands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The association between TI and emotional bond was stronger in data collapsed over all individuals with similar-strength emotional bonds, with the average strength of emotional bond explaining 92% of TI variance across cultures.

    “The association between TI and emotional bond was even stronger in data collapsed over all individuals with similar-strength emotional bonds (i.e., instead of treating different factual network members separately), with the average strength of emotional bond explaining 92% of TI variance across cultures”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The results of the correlation analysis without strangers were similar to those including strangers.

    “The results were similar to those including strangers, and thus only the correlations of the full data set are shown.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Taboo zones where touching was not allowed included the genitals for extended family and males in family, acquaintances, and strangers, as well as the buttocks for males in extended family, acquaintances, and strangers.

    “Taboo zones, where touching was not allowed, included the genitals for extended family and males in family, acquaintances, and strangers, as well as the buttocks for males in extended family, acquaintances, and strangers”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The present correlational data cannot be used to infer whether increased social touching leads to stronger emotional bonds or vice versa.

    “The present correlational data cannot, however, be used to infer whether increased social touching leads to stronger emotional bonds or vice versa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    All target children (subjects' own, acquaintances, strangers) were excluded from the analyses because of the small number of children reported in the national samples.

    “All target children (subjects’ own, acquaintances, strangers) were ultimately excluded from the analyses because of the small number of children reported in the national samples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The ethics boards of Aalto University and University of Oxford approved the study protocols.

    “The ethics boards of Aalto University and University of Oxford approved the study protocols.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    In experiment 2, the data were manually screened for anomalous painting patterns (e.g., doodling, coloring outside the body outline).

    “In experiment 2, the data were first manually screened for anomalous painting patterns (e.g., doodling, coloring outside the body outline).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All participants completed written informed consent online before participating in the actual experiment.

    “Before participating in the actual experiment, all participants completed written informed consent online.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Touch is used for modulating complex large-scale social networks and not only potentially reproductive relationships.

    “This result suggests that touch is used for modulating complex large-scale social networks and not only potentially reproductive relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study was based on self-reports, and thus the data may not directly translate to real-life touching behavior.

    “Finally, it should be noted that our study was based on self-reports, and thus the data may not directly translate to real-life touching behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A false discovery rate (FDR) correction with α-level of 0.05 with no correlation assumptions was applied to the t-maps to control for false positives caused by multiple comparisons.

    “To control for false positives caused by multiple comparisons, a false discovery rate (FDR) correction with α-level of 0.05 with no correlation assumptions was applied to the t-maps.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Acceptability of social touch was most limited (most relationship-specific) in regions with the strongest hedonic sensitivity, implying that it is the skin area's capacity to trigger pleasure when touched that likely determines its relationship-specificity for social touch.

    “Acceptability of social touch was most limited (i.e., most relationship-specific) in regions with the strongest hedonic sensitivity, implying that it is the skin area’s capacity to trigger pleasure when touched that likely determines its relationship-specificity for social touch.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The touching patterns and the encoding of the corresponding hedonic sensations show the necessary plasticity for changing touching behavior under the course of a relationship.

    “They nevertheless suggest that the touching patterns and the encoding of the corresponding hedonic sensations show the necessary plasticity for changing touching behavior under the course of a relationship.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The present findings point toward universality and biological basis of the touch-driven bonding behavior, which is modulated by cultural factors.

    “Altogether, the present findings point toward universality and biological basis of the touch-driven bonding behavior, which is, however, modulated by cultural factors”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
24 of 24

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Self-reports of the body’s regional touching allowances reflect real-life touching behavior.

    “it is feasible to assume that the self reports of the body’s regional touching allowances also reflect real-life touching behavior”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The participants’ partners have at some point of the relationship been strangers to the participants.

    “The participants’ partners, generally associated with the largest TIs, have, at some point of the relationship, been strangers (whose TIs are, on average, the lowest) to the participants.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Subjects would encounter strangers on a daily basis.

    “We assumed that subjects would encounter strangers on a daily basis and set “lapse” to zero for strangers.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Social touch conveys information about intimacy, warmth, and sexuality, with the frequency and bodily location of social touch indicating the closeness between individuals.

    “Social touch, on the other hand, conveys information about intimacy, warmth, and sexuality, with the frequency and bodily location of social touch indicating the closeness between individuals [113].”

    From The Neurobiology of Love and Pair Bonding from Human and Animal Perspectives (2023) · cites this paper as [113]

    The Significance and Results (Experiment 2; page not supplied) show that the bodily regions where touch is allowed vary with emotional closeness; the paper also discusses touch as communicating positive emotion. Results (Experiment 1) find relationship-dependent frequencies for types of touch, but the study does not establish that the overall frequency of actual touching indicates closeness, or specifically demonstrate communication of warmth and sexuality. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Affective communication via body, particularly via social touching, is culturally universal.

    “This dovetails nicely with recent findings suggesting that affective communication via body -particularly via social touching -is culturally universal (Suvilehto et al., 2015;Suvilehto et al., in press).”

    From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Suvilehto et al., 2015

    The Discussion reports a consistent relationship between emotional bonds and patterns of social touch across the European countries studied. But its ‘Is Bonding by Touch Culturally Universal?’ subsection says the data cannot confirm that this relationship holds in all cultures. The study also addresses social touching, not affective communication via the body generally; page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The Internet-based approach has been used successfully previously in mapping various interoceptive and somatosensory processes, and the presently observed mean BSMs accord well with previous reports.

    “However this approach has been used successfully previously in mapping various interoceptive and somatosensory processes (Suvilehto et al., 2015) and the presently observed mean BSMs accord well with previous reports (Hietanen et al., 2015;Nummenmaa et al., 2014).”

    From Bodily maps of emotions are culturally universal (2020) · cites this paper as Suvilehto et al., 2015

    The Materials and Methods (Data Acquisition; page unavailable) describe online body-map measurements of touch allowances and tactile, nociceptive, and pleasurable touch sensitivity, supporting the claim about somatosensory mapping. The cited paper does not establish use of this approach to map interoceptive processes. The statement about agreement with previous reports is attached to other citations and is not assessed here. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Social relationships evolve over time through interactions that reshape how one perceives, engages with, and feels about another individual.

    “Social relationships evolve over time through interactions – both positive and negative – that reshape how one subsequently perceives 1, engages with 2 and feels 3 about another individual.”

    From Social experience alters oxytocinergic modulation in the nucleus accumbens of female prairie voles (2022) · cites this paper as [1]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Touchability index is defined as both a pixel count and a proportion

    Minor

    The results define TI as the total number of touchable pixels, whereas the methods define it as the proportion of colored pixels. These differ by the number of body pixels, so the reported TI measure is ambiguous.

1 of 1

Cites

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Related

Authors
Suvilehto, J. T., Glerean, E., Dunbar, R. I. M., Hari, R., & Nummenmaa, L.
Affiliations
  • Aalto University (FI)
  • University of Oxford (GB)
  • University of Turku (FI)
ORCID
Venue
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences
Published
2015-10-26
Volume
112
Issue
45
Pages
13811-13816
ISSN
  • 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
  • 1091-6490
DOI
10.1073/pnas.1519231112
PMC
PMC4653180
OpenAlex
W2141211757
Semantic Scholar
53e61ce334dcf8f9252e2b9a8f7112fd10d19bd2
Cited by
385
References
44
Citations by year
2026: 32 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 1
FWCI
15.03
Type
journal article
Language
en
Update notices
correction (2015-11-23)
Open access
Licence
www.pnas.org/site/misc/userlicense.xhtml (vor)
Locations
  • Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Suomen Akatemia (265917)
  • EC | European Research Council (313000, 295663, 232946)
  • Emil Aaltosen Säätiö (Young Researcher Grant)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
Keywords
social touch, affective bonds, social bonding, kinship, familiarity, relationship strength, cross-cultural comparison, body mapping, affectionate touch, non-human primates, social networks
MeSH terms
Adult, Europe, Female, Handling, Psychological, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Object Attachment, Regression Analysis, Touch, Self Report, Anatomic Landmarks

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