Cited by 828Environmental Justice and Health DisparitiesUrban Green Space and HealthUrban Planning and Governance

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Parks and People: An Environmental Justice Inquiry in Baltimore, Maryland

Boone, Christopher G., Buckley, Geoffrey L., Grove, J. Morgan, Sister, Chona·2009·Annals of the Association of American Geographers

DOI 10.1080/00045600903102949

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Abstract

This article examines the distribution of parks in Baltimore, Maryland, as an environmental justice issue. In addition to established methods for measuring distribution of and access to parks, we employ a novel park service area approach that uses Thiessen polygons and dasymetric reapportioning of census data to measure potential park congestion as an equity outcome measure. We find that a higher proportion of African Americans have access to parks within walking distance, defined as 400 meters or less, than whites, but whites have access to more acreage of parks within walking distance than blacks. A needs-based assessment shows that areas with the highest need have the best access to parks but also have access to less acreage of parks compared to low-need areas. Park service areas that are predominantly black have higher park congestion than areas that are predominantly white, although differences are less apparent at the city level than at the metropolitan level. Following Iris Young and others, we argue that conceptions of justice must move beyond distributive justice and address the social and institutional mechanisms that generate inequities. For Baltimore, we examine how segregation ordinances, racial covenants, improvement associations, the Home Owners Loan Corporation, and the Parks and Recreation Board created separate black spaces historically underserved with parks. These mechanisms ultimately fueled middle-class flight and suburbanization and black inheritance of…

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García‐Lamarca, M., Anguelovski, I., Cole, H. V. S., Connolly, J. J., Argüelles, L., Baró, F., Loveless, S., del Pulgar, C. P., & Shokry, G. (2019) · Urban Studies · doi:10.1177/0042098019885330 · Cited by 163
“The (‘socially inclusive’) green growth discourse furthermore ignores the uneven urban race and class relations that have been demonstrated, particularly in the US context, to be deeply intertwined with the location of environmental amenities (Boone et al., 2009; Heynen et al., 2006; Wolch et al., 2005).”
Background
Socio-economic inequalities in access to nature on public and private lands: A case study from Brisbane, Australia
Shanahan, D. F., Lin, B. B., Gaston, K. J., Bush, R. A. B., & Fuller, R. A. (2014) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.06.005 · Cited by 161
Understanding the socioeconomic equity of publicly accessible greenspace distribution: The example of Sheffield, UK
Mears, M., Brindley, P., Maheswaran, R., & Jørgensen, A. (2019) · Geoforum · doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2019.04.016 · Cited by 161
“In Baltimore, relatively equitable accessibility likely arises from blacks moving into formerly white neighbourhoods following “white flight” after economic depression in the 1950s (Boone et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluential
Analysis of factors affecting urban park service area in Beijing: Perspectives from multi-source geographic data
Guo, S., Yang, G., Pei, T., Ma, T., Song, C., Shu, H., Du, Y., & Zhou, C. (2018) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.09.016 · Cited by 158
Greener urbanization? Changing accessibility to parks in China
Wei, F. (2016) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.09.004 · Cited by 158
A planning framework to evaluate demands and preferences by different social groups for accessibility to urban greenspaces
Rosa, D. L., Takatori, C., Shimizu, H., & Privitera, R. (2017) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2017.10.026 · Cited by 158
A Research Agenda for Urban Biodiversity in the Global Extinction Crisis
Knapp, S., Aronson, M. F. J., Carpenter, E. S., Herrera-Montes, A., Jung, K., Kotze, D. J., Sorte, F. A. L., Lepczyk, C. A., MacGregor‐Fors, I., MacIvor, J. S., et al. (2020) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biaa141 · Cited by 156
Green and open space planning for urban consolidation – A review of the literature and best practice
Byrne, J., & Sipe, N. (2010) · eCite Digital Repository (University of Tasmania) · Cited by 153
Contrasting distributions of urban green infrastructure across social and ethno-racial groups
Ferguson, M., Roberts, H., McEachan, R., & Dallimer, M. (2018) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.03.020 · Cited by 149
“, 2008) or public parks (Barbosa et al., 2007; Boone et al., 2009; Comber, Brunsdon, & Green, 2008; Hughey et al., 2016; Vaughan et al., 2013; Wolch et al., 2013; Zhou & Kim, 2013); others do not distinguish between UGI which is publicly accessible and that which is not, by examining urban tree canopy cover (Heynen et…”
Background
Inclusive green environment for all? An investigation of spatial access equity of urban green space and associated socioeconomic drivers in China
Lu, Y., Chen, R., Чэн, Б., & Wu, J. (2023) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104926 · Cited by 153
Creating the park cool island in an inner-city neighborhood: heat mitigation strategy for Phoenix, AZ
Declet‐Barreto, J., Brazel, A. J., Martin, C. A., Chow, W., & Harlan, S. L. (2012) · Urban Ecosystems · doi:10.1007/s11252-012-0278-8 · Cited by 146
“Studies focused on environmental equity find that both the quantity and quality of parks are unevenly distributed within cities, and that low-income and minority communities sometimes have less access to such amenities (Boone et al. 2009; Byrne et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInfluential
Urban green space accessibility changes in a high-density city: A case study of Macau from 2010 to 2015
Ye, C., Hu, L., & Li, M. (2017) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.11.009 · Cited by 146
Measuring spatial disparity in accessibility with a multi-mode method based on park green spaces classification in Wuhan, China
Xing, L., Liu, Y., & Liu, X. (2018) · Applied Geography · doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.03.014 · Cited by 145
“This may not be realistic for public parks in which residents prefer a larger regional park far from them (Boone et al., 2009; Sister, Wolch, & Wilson, 2009).”
Background
How ‘just’ is hybrid governance of urban nature-based solutions?
Toxopeus, H. S., Kotsila, P., Conde, M., Katona, A., van der Jagt, A., & Polzin, F. (2020) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2020.102839 · Cited by 142
“Our findings show that special attention should be paid to vulnerable, under-represented and marginalized groups (Anguelovski, 2013; Boone et al., 2009) that may not be targeted by commercial revenue streams if those sustain the NBS.”
Background
Evaluating the disparity between supply and demand of park green space using a multi-dimensional spatial equity evaluation framework
Liu, B., Tian, Y., Guo, M., Tran, D., Alwah, A. A. Q., & Xu, D. (2021) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2021.103484 · Cited by 142
Evaluating the disparities in urban green space provision in communities with diverse built environments: The case of a rapidly urbanizing Chinese city
Zhang, J., Yu, Z., Cheng, Y., Chen, C., Wan, Y., Zhao, B., & Vejre, H. (2020) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107170 · Cited by 138
Development of a Public Open Space Desktop Auditing Tool (POSDAT): A remote sensing approach
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A multi-dimensional classification and equity analysis of an urban park system: A novel methodology and case study application
Ibes, D. C. (2015) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.12.014 · Cited by 137
Race, Ethnicity, Income Concentration and 10-Year Change in Urban Greenness in the United States
Casey, J. A., James, P., Cushing, L. J., Jesdale, B. M., & Morello-Frosch, R. A. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14121546 · Cited by 134
Social disparities in tree canopy and park accessibility: A case study of six cities in Illinois using GIS and remote sensing
Zhou, X., & Kim, J. (2013) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2012.11.004 · Cited by 133
Spatial variation of green space equity and its relation with urban dynamics: A case study in the region of Munich
Xu, C., Haase, D., Pribadi, D. O., & Pauleit, S. (2018) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.05.024 · Cited by 133
Investigating the Implications of Using Alternative GIS-Based Techniques to Measure Accessibility to Green Space
Higgs, G., Fry, R. J., & Langford, M. (2012) · Environment and Planning B Planning and Design · doi:10.1068/b37130 · Cited by 141
“Boone et al (2009) found that whilst African Americans in Baltimore had greater access to parks within a 400 m walking distance, the acreage of such areas available to whites within walking distance is greater, suggesting other factors need to be taken into account in such studies.”
Background
A systematic review of urban green space research over the last 30 years: A bibliometric analysis
Farkas, J. Z., Hoyk, E., de Morais, M. B., & Csomós, G. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13406 · Cited by 150
Assessing equity in park accessibility using a travel behavior-based G2SFCA method in Nanjing, China
Li, Z., Fan, Z., Song, Y., & Chai, Y. (2021) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2021.103179 · Cited by 128
Developing a green infrastructure equity index to promote equity planning
Heckert, M., & Rosan, C. D. (2016) · Urban Forestry & Urban Greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2015.12.011 · Cited by 143
A Multi-Scalar Approach to Theorizing Socio-Ecological Dynamics of Urban Residential Landscapes
Chowdhury, R. R., Larson, K., Grove, J. M., Polsky, C., Cook, E. M., Onsted, J., & Ogden, L. A. (2011) · Cities and the Environment · doi:10.15365/cate.4162011 · Cited by 124
Self-citation
What Shapes Uneven Access to Urban Amenities? Thick Injustice and the Legacy of Racial Discrimination in Denver’s Parks
Rigolon, A., & Németh, J. (2018) · Journal of Planning Education and Research · doi:10.1177/0739456x18789251 · Cited by 123
“Following Boone et al. (2009), we analyze both institutional mechanisms, such as public policy and planning acts, and social mechanisms, or actions taken by private individuals and groups.”
Influential
Evaluation of the spatial equity of medical facilities based on improved potential model and map service API: A case study in Zhengzhou, China
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Spatio-temporal disparity between demand and supply of park green space service in urban area of Wuhan from 2000 to 2014
Xing, L., Liu, Y., Liu, X., Wei, X., & Mao, Y. (2017) · Habitat International · doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.11.002 · Cited by 121
The development of a participatory assessment technique for infrastructure: Neighborhood-level monitoring towards sustainable infrastructure systems
Hendricks, M. D., Meyer, M. A., Gharaibeh, N. G., Zandt, S. V., Masterson, J. H., Cooper, J., Horney, J. A., & Berke, P. R. (2018) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2017.12.039 · Cited by 119
Brownfields to Greenfields: Environmental Justice Versus Environmental Gentrification
Maantay, J. A., & Maroko, A. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15102233 · Cited by 119
Did improvements of ecosystem services supply-demand imbalance change environmental spatial injustices?
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Factors Influencing Perceptions and Use of Urban Nature: Surveys of Park Visitors in Delhi
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Why Do So Few Minority People Visit National Parks? Visitation and the Accessibility of “America's Best Idea”
Weber, J., & Sultana, S. (2012) · Annals of the Association of American Geographers · doi:10.1080/00045608.2012.689240 · Cited by 114
“…use of or access to public facilities such as parks (e.g., Talen 1997; Nicholls 2001; Wolch, Wilson, and Fehrenbach 2005; Timperio et al. 2007; Boone et al. 2009; Joassart-Marcelli 2010; Sister, Wolch, and Wilson 2010; Zhang, Lu, and Holt 2011), although these have so far largely been…”
Background

Authors: Boone, C. G., Buckley, G. L., Grove, J. M., & Sister, C.
Affiliations: Arizona State University (US)
Ohio University (US)
US Forest Service (US)
ORCID: Boone, Christopher G.
Buckley, Geoffrey L.
Grove, J. Morgan
Venue: Annals of the Association of American Geographers
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2009-09-04
Volume: 99
Issue: 4
Pages: 767-787
ISSN: 0004-5608 (ISSN-L)
1467-8306
DOI: 10.1080/00045600903102949
OpenAlex: W1997617500
Semantic Scholar: ef583ed3235b3144474283accd83d738c66dde51
Cited by: 828
References: 151
Citations by year: 2026: 61 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 81 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 30
FWCI: 68.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annals of the Association of American Geographers (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Environmental Justice and Health Disparities
Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Green Space and Health
Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Planning and Governance
Keywords: environmental justice, park accessibility, urban parks, Baltimore, racial segregation, Voronoi tessellation, African Americans, walking distance, suburbanization, racist covenants, Home Owners' Loan Corporation, Iris Marion Young, distributive justice

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Parks and People: An Environmental Justice Inquiry in Baltimore, Maryland

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