Flight-deck automation: promises and problems
Open accessAbstract
Modern microprocessor technology and display systems make it entirely feasible to automate many of the flight-deck functions previously performed manually. There are many benefits to be derived from automation; the question today is not whether a function can be automated, but whether it should be, due to various human factors issues. It is highly questionable whether total system safety is always enhanced by allocating functions to automatic devices rather than human operators, and there is some reason to believe that flight-deck automation may have already passed its optimum point. This is an age-old question in the human factors profession, and there are few guidelines available to the system designer. This paper presents the state-of-the-art in human factors in flight-deck automation, identifies a number of critical problem areas, and offers broad design guidelines. Some automation-related aircraft accidents and incidents are discussed as examples of human factors problems in automated flight.
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“Similarly, research on the design of cognitive aids also shows a frequent lack of attention paid to preparatory activities (e.g., [ 37 ], [38]).”
BackgroundComparison of a Brain-Based Adaptive System and a Manual Adaptable System for Invoking Automation
Bailey, N. R., Scerbo, M. W., Freeman, F. G., Mikulka, P. J., & Scott, L. A. (2006) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872006779166280 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“The increase in both quantity and complexity of advanced automated systems has also resulted in an increased demand for operators to monitor systems for failures or malfunctions (Wiener & Curry, 1980).”
BackgroundRequirements for Effective Function Allocation
Feigh, K. M., & Pritchett, A. R. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343413490945 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…in which humans are assigned to monitor automation or to monitor the environment for conditions beyond which the automation can operate (Bainbridge, 1983; Wiener & Curry, 1980), despite consistent findings that humans are ineffective at this task (Lee & Moray, 1992; Molloy & Parasuraman, 1996).”
BackgroundTeam Play with a Powerful and Independent Agent: A Full-Mission Simulation Study
Sarter, N. B., & Woods, D. D. (2000) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872000779698178 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Rather, the success of modern technology depends to a large extent on its ability to function as a “team player” with human practitioners (e.g., Billings, 1996; Parasuraman & Mouloua, 1996; Wiener & Curry, 1980).”
BackgroundThe Efficacy of Psychophysiological Measures for Implementing Adaptive Technology
Mark, W., Frederick, G. F., Peter, J., Parasuraman, R., Di, N. F., & Prinzel, L. J. (2001) · NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA) · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Balfe, N., Sharples, S., & Wilson, J. R. (2014) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2014.08.002 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Among other weaknesses, such as the potential for programming errors (Wickens, 1992; Wiener and Curry, 1980), automation can lack the flexibility of human operators in the face of novel situations and thus difficulties can be encountered when the designers attempt to replace human problem solving abilities with automa…”
BackgroundPotential Solutions to Human Factors Challenges in Road Vehicle Automation
Seppelt, B., & Victor, T. (2016) · Lecture notes in mobility · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-40503-2_11 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Ironies of Generative AI: Understanding and Mitigating Productivity Loss in Human-AI Interaction
Simkute, A., Tankelevitch, L., Kewenig, V., Scott, A. E., Sellen, A., & Rintel, S. (2024) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2405782 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Finally, we explore how automation such as GenAI can paradoxically lead to easy tasks being made easier and hard tasks made harder, a phenomenon we refer to as “task-complexity polarization” (also known as “clumsy automation” in Human Factors research (Wiener & Curry (1980); Section 3.4)).”
InfluentialWhat Do We Tell the Drivers? Toward Minimum Driver Training Standards for Partially Automated Cars
Casner, S. M., & Hutchins, E. L. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343419830901 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Studies that revealed how pilots’ attention naturally drifted when automated systems were used prompted an industry-wide focus on the “out-of-the-loop phenomenon” (Endsley & Kiris, 1995; Wiener & Curry, 1980).”
Method"Automation Surprise" in Aviation
Dehais, F., Peysakhovich, V., Scannella, S., Fongue, J., & Gateau, T. (2015) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2702123.2702521 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Indeed, con-flicts do not solely occur between humans operators, but also involve pilots and automation [12, 39].”
BackgroundPapadimitriou, E., Schneider, C., Tello, J. A., Damen, W., Vrouenraets, M. L., & ten Broeke, A. (2020) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2020.105656 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Given that humans are not good at monitoring systems (Wiener and Curry, 1980; Bainbridge, 1983), the so-called “out-of-the-loop” (OOTL) performance problem can lead to new accident mechanisms (Endsley and Kirris, 1995).”
BackgroundA New Approach To System Safety Engineering
Leveson, N. G. (2005) · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Madni, A. M., & Madni, C. C. (2018) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems6040044 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Furthermore, it is well-documented in the aviation literature [11] that there is inevitable skill erosion with automation making human intervention to fly the aircraft a dicey proposition at best.”
BackgroundData-Driven Shared Steering Control of Semi-Autonomous Vehicles
Huang, M., Gao, W., Wang, Y., & Jiang, Z. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2019.2900409 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“” Wiener and Curry [4] and Flad et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialMeasuring Human-Automation Function Allocation
Pritchett, A. R., Kim, S. Y., & Feigh, K. M. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343413490166 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“…responsibility and authority—can result in several adverse outcomes, one manifestation is a requirement for humans to monitor automation (Bainbridge, 1983; Wiener & Curry, 1980), despite consistent findings that humans are ineffective at this task (Lee & Molloy, 1992; Molloy & Parasuraman, 1996).”
BackgroundPilots of the future: human or computer?
Chambers, A. B., & Nagel, D. C. (1985) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/4547.4551 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“For commercial flight, where a one percent fuel savings across the entire fleet represents more than $100 million in annual fuel costs [19], the performance benefits of advanced technology can be significant.”
BackgroundUnderstanding human management of automation errors
McBride, S. E., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2014) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2013.817625 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Automation does not operate in an all-or-none fashion (Wiener and Curry 1980).”
BackgroundHuman adaptation to latency in teleoperated multi-robot human-agent search and rescue teams
Khasawneh, A., Rogers, H., Bertrand, J., Madathil, K. C., & Gramopadhye, A. K. (2018) · Automation in Construction · doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2018.12.012 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
A taxonomy of autonomous vehicle handover situations
McCall, R., McGee, F., Mirnig, A. G., Meschtscherjakov, A., Louveton, N., Engel, T., & Tscheligi, M. (2018) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2018.05.005 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Human–machine cooperation in smart cars. An empirical investigation of the loss-of-control thesis
Weyer, J., Fink, R. D., & Adelt, F. (2014) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2014.09.004 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Currano, R., Park, S. Y., Moore, D. J., Lyons, K., & Sirkin, D. M. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445575 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“However, despite the apparent advantages of keeping drivers’ heads up and their eyes on the road [35], HUDs can also monopolize drivers’ attention through cognitive capture [70], potentially diverting them from from the broader context and leading to primary/secondary task inversion [73], where an operator begins to r…”
BackgroundHuman centered automation: oxymoron or common sense?
Sheridan, T. B. (2002) · Conference proceedings/Conference proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/icsmc.1995.537867 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“There certainly is debate about whether the operator is a better monitor when actively in the loop or not (Wiener and Curry, 1980) and what are the best strategies for intervention (Wiener, 1993).”
BackgroundAn interdisciplinary approach to inflight aircraft icing safety
Bragg, M., Perkins, W., Sarter, N. B., Başar, T., Voulgaris, P. G., Gurbacki, H., Melody, J. W., & McCray, S. (1998) · AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit · doi:10.2514/6.1998-95 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Heikoop, D. D., de Winter, J., van Arem, B., & Stanton, N. A. (2016) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2016.10.016 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“…domain is that humans are poor monitors (Hancock and Parasuraman, 1992; Kibler, 1965; Harris, 2002; Pritchett and Lewis, 2010; Sheridan, 1996; Wiener and Curry, 1980), or as Wiener (1985) put it: “ After three decades of highly proli fi c research on human vigilance (Mackie, 1977), we are…”
BackgroundA conceptual framework of autonomous and automated agents
KABER, D. B. (2017) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2017.1363314 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“…typically comes with the cost of alternate forms of human work-load (e.g. cognitive vs. visual motor) generated by the demands of automation for supervision in function coordination and performance to a goal (see Wiener and Curry (1980) for examples in the automated aircraft fl ight-deck).”
BackgroundInvestigation on the impact of human-automation interaction in maritime operations
Pazouki, K., Forbes, N., Norman, R. A., & Woodward, M. D. (2018) · Ocean Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.01.103 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Despite the benefits, Wiener and Curry (1980) suggested that automation has limitations, which will contribute to accidents.”
BackgroundAssessing drivers' response during automated driver support system failures with non-driving tasks
Shen, S., & Neyens, D. M. (2017) · Journal of Safety Research · doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2017.02.009 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Comparative effects of pravastatin and lovastatin on nighttime sleep and daytime performance
Richardson, G. S., Sullivan, J. P., Lee, R. M., Roth, T. G., Merlotti, L. A., & Roehrs, T. (1992) · Clinical Cardiology · doi:10.1002/clc.4960150607 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Flying the Needles: Flight Deck Automation Erodes Fine-Motor Flying Skills Among Airline Pilots
Haslbeck, A., & Hoermann, H.-J. (2016) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720816640394 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Early warnings were raised by Wiener and Curry (1980) even prior to having broader data sets to examine this anticipated threat.”
BackgroundDesigning for Situation Awareness and Trust in Automation
Wickens, C. D. (1995) · IFAC Proceedings Volumes · doi:10.1016/s1474-6670(17)46646-8 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Application of Vigilance Research: Rare, Medium, or Well Done?
Wiener, E. L. (1987) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872088702900611 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“, 1980), at Chernobyl (though we may never know the full story there), and in highly automated transport aircraft (Wiener, 1985; Wiener and Curry, 1980) have demonstrated all too dramatically that it is time to rethink the old doctrines.”
BackgroundSelf-citationTowards A Taxonomy of Autonomous Vehicle Handover Situations
McCall, R., McGee, F., Meschtscherjakov, A., Louveton, N., & Engel, T. (2016) · International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (AutomotiveUI) · doi:10.1145/3003715.3005456 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Morosan, C. V., & Cengizci, A. D. (2023) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-08-2022-1041 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“For instance, Wiener and Curry (1980) revealed that many pilots turned off the autopilot frequently to maintain their manual fl ying skills because of the fear of losing pro fi ciency.”
Background
- Authors
- WIENER, E. L., & CURRY, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Miami (US)
- Venue
- Ergonomics
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1980-11
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 995-1011
- ISSN
- 0014-0139 (ISSN-L)
- 1366-5847
- OpenAlex
- W2153220708
- Cited by
- 599
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 10.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Ergonomics (publishedVersion)
- NASA Technical Reports Server (NASA) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ames Research Center
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ergonomics and Human Factors
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Aerospace Engineering and Control Systems
- Keywords
- cockpit automation, human factors, aircraft automation, human-automation interaction, system safety, aviation accidents, pilot workload, microprocessor technology, display devices
About these checks
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