Cited by 366Race, History, and American SocietySocial and Intergroup PsychologyCrime Patterns and Interventions

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 6 of the 6 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Minor Studies of Aggression: VI. Correlation of Lynchings with Economic Indices

Hovland, Carl Iver, Sears, Robert R.·1940·The Journal of Psychology

DOI 10.1080/00223980.1940.9917696

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

(1940). Minor Studies of Aggression: VI. Correlation of Lynchings with Economic Indices. The Journal of Psychology: Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 301-310.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/00223980.1940.9917696

Cites

6 of 6 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Frustration and aggression.
Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10022-000 · Cited by 3,920
The Tragedy of Lynching.
Frazier, E. F., & Raper, A. F. (1934) · The Journal of Negro Education · doi:10.2307/2292150 · Cited by 120
Social Aspects of the Business Cycle, by Dorothy Swaine Thomas
Schultz, H. (1928) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2143317 · Cited by 89
Rainfall and the Populist Party in Nebraska
Barnhart, J. D. (1925) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2939131 · Cited by 46
Minor Studies of Aggression: V. Strength of Frustration-Reaction as a Function of Strength of Drive
Sears, R. R., & Sears, P. S. (1940) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1940.9917695 · Cited by 28
Social Aspects of the Business Cycle.
Brown, F., Thomas, D. S., & Hexter, M. B. (1926) · Economica · doi:10.2307/2547823 · Cited by 24

Show all 6 references

Research works printed but not linked: 2

Marshall R., 1927, The Nation, 124, 315
1932, Lynchings and what they mean

Sorted by citations

Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives.
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504 · Cited by 2,714
“This implies that one can identify specific material conditions as ulterior “causes” of collective strife (e.g., Hovland & Sears, 1940).”
Background
Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?
Krueger, A. B., & Malečková, J. (2003) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/089533003772034925 · Cited by 1,362
The Authoritarian Dynamic
Stenner, K. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511614712 · Cited by 942
Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda.
Paluck, E. L. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0011989 · Cited by 902
“Few topics have attracted a greater range of theoretical perspectives (Banaji, 2001b; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Hovland & Sears, 1940; Sears & Henry, 2005; Sidanius & Pratto, 1999; Tajfel & Turner, 1979).”
Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination: Theoretical and Empirical Overview
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2010) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446200919.n1 · Cited by 635
Toward an Understanding of the Determinants of Anger.
Berkowitz, L. J., & Harmon‐Jones, E. (2004) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.4.2.107 · Cited by 634
“Basically corroborating the findings originally reported by Hovland and Sears (1940) and supported by a more sophisticated reanalysis of the data conducted by Hepworth and West (1988, cited in Berkowitz, 2003), Green, Glaser, and Rich (1998) showed that there was a significant relationship between…”
Result
The authoritarian dynamic
(2006) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-3680 · Cited by 587
Social cognition in schizophrenia.
Penn, D. L., Corrigan, P. W., Bentall, R. P., Racenstein, J. M., & Newman, L. S. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.114 · Cited by 586
Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict
Bar‐Tal, D., & Teichman, Y. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511499814 · Cited by 506
Defended Neighborhoods, Integration, and Racially Motivated Crime
GREEN, D. P., Strolovitch, D. Z., & Wong, J. S. (1998) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/210042 · Cited by 478
Freudian Defense Mechanisms and Empirical Findings in Modern Social Psychology: Reaction Formation, Projection, Displacement, Undoing, Isolation, Sublimation, and Denial
Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K. L., & Sommer, K. L. (1998) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00043 · Cited by 434
Group Threat and Social Control: Race, Perceptions of Minorities and the Desire to Punish
King, R. D., & Wheelock, D. (2007) · Social Forces · doi:10.1353/sof.2007.0045 · Cited by 415
“…group, perceive a sizeable racial minority group as a viable threat to existing social arrangements and thus both informal social control (Tolnay, Deane and Beck 1996) and formal social control (Jackson 1989; Liska 1992) are greater where racial minority populations are proportionately large.”
Background
The Psychology of Good and Evil
Staub, E. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615795 · Cited by 339
Islamophobia Pre– and Post–September 11th, 2001
Sheridan, L. P. (2006) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260505282885 · Cited by 329
Socioecological Psychology
Oishi, S. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-030413-152156 · Cited by 338
Studying Hate Crime with the Internet: What Makes Racists Advocate Racial Violence?
Glaser, J., Dixit, J., & GREEN, D. P. (2002) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00255 · Cited by 292
“In keeping with the findings of Green, Glaser, and Rich (1998) as well as Green et al. (1999), but inconsistent with Hovland and Sears (1940) and studies that followed, job competition, an economic variable, inspired very little advocacy of violence against Blacks at any level.”
Result
Psychological Factors in Civil Violence
Gurr, T. R. (1968) · World Politics · doi:10.2307/2009798 · Cited by 288
The displaced aggression questionnaire.
Denson, T. F., Pedersen, W. C., & Miller, N. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.1032 · Cited by 303
“…and Triggered Displaced Aggression (TDA) Displaced aggression occurs when a person is provoked, is unwilling or unable to retaliate against the original provocateur, and subsequently aggresses against a seemingly innocent target (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Hovland & Sears, 1940).”
Background
Ego depletion and aggressive behavior: Is the inhibition of aggression a limited resource?
Stucke, T. S., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.285 · Cited by 280
Danger, Disease, and the Nature of Prejudice(s)
Schaller, M., & Neuberg, S. L. (2012) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394281-4.00001-5 · Cited by 280
“For instance, Hovland and Sears (1940) published an article documenting a relation between threats to Americans' economic resources and lynchings of African Americans.”
Background
Historical Events and Spaces of Hate: Hate Crimes against Arabs and Muslims in Post-9/11 America
Disha, I., Cavendish, J. C., & King, R. D. (2011) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2011.58.1.21 · Cited by 270
Psychology and prejudice: A historical analysis and integrative framework.
Duckitt, J. H. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.10.1182 · Cited by 260
Hate Crime: An Emergent Research Agenda
GREEN, D. P., McFalls, L. H., & Smith, J. K. (2001) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.479 · Cited by 257
A dual-motive model of scapegoating: Displacing blame to reduce guilt or increase control.
Rothschild, Z. K., Landau, M. J., Sullivan, D., & Keefer, L. A. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027413 · Cited by 258
The Killing Fields of the Deep South: The Market for Cotton and the Lynching of Blacks, 1882-1930
Beck, E. M., & Tolnay, S. E. (1990) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095805 · Cited by 234
A Theoretical Model of Triggered Displaced Aggression
Miller, N., Pedersen, W. C., Earleywine, M., & Pollock, V. E. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0701_5 · Cited by 228
“A Historical Perspective on Displaced Aggression Displaced aggression attained prominence following publication of the related monographs by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears (1939) and by Hovland and Sears (1940) some 60 years ago.”
Background
“Kick 'Em When They're Down”: Explanations of the Relationship Between Stress and Interpersonal Aggression and Violence
Felson, R. B. (1992) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1992.tb00360.x · Cited by 225
Collective violence as social control
de la Roche, R. S. (1996) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1007/bf02408303 · Cited by 223
Explaining the Appeal of Populist Right‐Wing Parties in Times of Economic Prosperity
Mols, F., & Jetten, J. (2015) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12258 · Cited by 231
The Political Context of Competition: Lynching and Urban Racial Violence, 1882-1914
Olzak, S. (1990) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/69.2.395 · Cited by 217
Economic threat as a determinant of conversion rates in authoritarian and nonauthoritarian churches.
Sales, S. M. (1972) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0033157 · Cited by 209
The Psychology of Good and Evil: Why Children, Adults, and Groups Help and Harm Others
Staub, E. (2010) · Cited by 207
Relative Deprivation and Relative Wealth Enhances Anti-Immigrant Sentiments: The V-Curve Re-Examined
Jetten, J., Mols, F., & Postmes, T. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139156 · Cited by 196
Witchcraft, Weather and Economic Growth in Renaissance Europe
Oster, E. F. (2004) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/089533004773563502 · Cited by 177
“For example, in a pioneering study, Hovland and Sears (1940) explore whether economic downturns were associated with a higher frequency of lynchings in the American south.”
Background
The Social Psychology of Punishment Reactions
Miller, D. T., & Vidmar, N. J. (1981) · Critical issues in social justice · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0429-4_8 · Cited by 174
Economic Contraction and Mental Health
Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Saxton, K. B., & Catalano, R. C. (2010) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.2753/imh0020-7411390201 · Cited by 174
“They may, rather, become less tolerant of the petty or noisome deviance of others they encounter in the community [26, 27].”
Background
Effects of Perceived Economic Competition on People’s Willingness to Help Empower Immigrants
Jackson, L. M., & Esses, V. M. (2000) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430200003004006 · Cited by 173
“…conditions predict tensions and even aggression against outgroups dates back to the classic demonstration of the correlation between low cotton prices in the southern United States and lynchings of Blacks by Whites during the years surrounding the last turn of the century (Hovland & Sears, 1940).”
Background
Cultural-societal roots of violence: The examples of genocidal violence and of contemporary youth violence in the United States.
Staub, E. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.51.2.117 · Cited by 169
Community (Dis)Organization and Racially Motivated Crime
Lyons, C. J. (2007) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/521846 · Cited by 167
“This theory is consistent with a frustration-aggression thesis at the microlevel (Hovland and Sears 1940), which connects macroeconomic downturns to psychological strain that motivates individuals to aggress against vulnerable social groups.”
Result
Examining hate-motivated aggression: a review of the social psychological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression
Craig, K. M. (2002) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1359-1789(00)00039-2 · Cited by 166
A new threat in the air: Macroeconomic threat increases prejudice against Asian Americans
Butz, D. A., & Yogeeswaran, K. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.07.014 · Cited by 162
A unitary theory of stigmatisation: Pursuit of self-interest and routes to destigmatisation
Haghighat, R. (2001) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.178.3.207 · Cited by 152
Race as stigma: positioning the stigmatized as agents, not objects
Howarth, C. (2006) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.898 · Cited by 151
“The classic studies of Hovland and Sears (1940) on the lynchings of blacks by whites in the Southern states of America, for example, demonstrated that history and economics (tangibly here the price of cotton) pay a crucial role in the enactment of racist discourses and racist murder.”
Background
Explaining heterosexual men's attitudes toward women and gay men: The theory of exclusively masculine identity.
Kilianski, S. E. (2003) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.37 · Cited by 151
Formation and change of ethnic and national stereotypes: An integrative model
Bar‐Tal, D. (1997) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/s0147-1767(97)00022-9 · Cited by 151
Ecological and cultural factors underlying the global distribution of prejudice
Jackson, J. C., van Egmond, M., Choi, V. K., Ember, C. R., Halberstadt, J., Balanovic, J., Basker, I. N., Boehnke, K., Buki, N., Fischer, R., et al. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221953 · Cited by 144
Um estudo sobre as formas de preconceito contra homossexuais na perspectiva das representações sociais
Lacerda, M., Pereira, C. R., & Camino, L. (2002) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1590/s0102-79722002000100018 · Cited by 129
“…o preconceito tem sido estudado como uma característica psicológica do indivíduo: uma frustração reprimida e deslocada para grupos mais fracos (Hovland & Sears, 1940); o desenvolvimento de um tipo de personalidade autoritária (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson & Sanford, 1950); a pouca…”
Background
Violence and economic activity: evidence from African American patents, 1870–1940
Cook, L. (2014) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1007/s10887-014-9102-z · Cited by 128
“…several studies have looked at the causal relation between labor-market competition between blacks and whites and lynchings; Raper (1933), Hovland and Sears (1940), and Tolnay and Beck (1995) find an inverse relation between cotton prices, and therefore competition for jobs in…”
Background
Caste-based crimes and economic status: Evidence from India
Sharma, S. (2014) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2014.10.005 · Cited by 123
“The frustration-aggression thesis of Dollard et al. (1939) and Hovland and Sears (1940) suggests that during periods of economic stress, there is an innate tendency to lash out against a vulnerable scapegoat, which is often an out-group that may be linked to the source of the stress.”
Background
Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses of Historical Data
Simonton, D. K. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145034 · Cited by 131
“Sci. Q.36:364–96 Hovland CI, Sears RR. 1940.”
BackgroundInfluential
Minor Studies of Aggression: II. the Influence of Frustrations Imposed by the In-Group on Attitudes Expressed Toward Out-Groups
Miller, N. E., & Bugelski, B. R. (1948) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1948.9917387 · Cited by 116
Black Lynchings: The Power Threat Hypothesis Revisited
Tolnay, S. E., Beck, E. M., & Massey, J. L. (1989) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/67.3.605 · Cited by 113
Mortality and the business cycle: some questions about research strategies when utilizing macro-social and ecological data.
Kasl, S. V. (1979) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.69.8.784 · Cited by 113
The relative deprivation-gratification continuum and the attitudes of South Africans toward immigrants: A test of the V-curve hypothesis.
Dambrun, M., Taylor, D. M., McDonald, D. A., Crush, J., & Méot, A. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.1032 · Cited by 111
Lynchings and the economy: A time-series reanalysis of Hovland and Sears (1940).
Hepworth, J. T., & West, S. G. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.55.2.239 · Cited by 104
The moderating effect of trivial triggering provocation on displaced aggression.
Pedersen, W. C., Gonzales, C., & Miller, N. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.5.913 · Cited by 98
Emotions about crime and attitudes to punishment
Hartnagel, T. F., & Templeton, L. (2012) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474512452519 · Cited by 96
“The frustration-aggression hypothesis postulates that frustrations resulting from adverse economic conditions produce aggressive impulses that are then directed at vulnerable targets even when they bear no actual or perceived responsibility for economic decline (Hovland and Sears, 1940).”
Background
Perceived control qualifies the effects of threat on prejudice
Greenaway, K. H., Louis, W. R., Hornsey, M. J., & Jones, J. M. (2014) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12049 · Cited by 95
Where are the witches of prehistory?
Walker, W. (1998) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/bf02428071 · Cited by 94
Consequences of the 2008 financial crisis for intergroup relations
Becker, J. C., Wagner, U., & Christ, O. (2011) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430211407643 · Cited by 92
“…macroeconomic threats such as societal crises can increase prejudice towards specific groups (e.g., Butz & Yogeeswaran, 2011; Hepworth & West, 1988; Hovland & Sears, 1940), it has not been tested directly whether this effect was due to the blaming of certain scapegoats who had supposedly caused…”
Background
Embracing the Other: Philosophical, Psychological, and Historical Perspectives on Altruism
Oliner, P. M., Oliner, S. P., Baron, L., & Blum, L. A. (1995) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 90
Social Psychological Models of Mental Illness Stigma.
Ottati, V., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Newman, L. S. (2005) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10887-004 · Cited by 101
Psychosocial roots of genocide: risk, prevention, and intervention
Woolf, L. M., & Hulsizer, M. R. (2005) · Journal of Genocide Research · doi:10.1080/14623520500045088 · Cited by 91
“In one of the earliest examples of this theory, Hovland and Sears (1940) reported that the number of African Americans from the southern United States lynched in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century varied as a function of the price of cotton.”
Affective Aggression
Berkowitz, L. J. (1998) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012278805-5/50004-3 · Cited by 89
The Relationship Between Hate Groups and Far-Right Ideological Violence
Adamczyk, A., Gruenewald, J. A., Chermak, S. M., & Freilich, J. D. (2014) · Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/1043986214536659 · Cited by 92
“Countering the frustration–aggression hypothesis (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Hovland & Sears, 1940; Miller, 1941), Green, Glaser, and Rich (1998) found no evidence that as hate crimes perpetrated by Whites against racial and ethnic minorities increased, economic conditions…”
Background
W HAT R OLE D OES P REJUDICE P LAY IN E THNIC C ONFLICT ?
GREEN, D. P., & Seher, R. L. (2003) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.6.121901.085642 · Cited by 83
The Tenant Labor Market and Lynching in the South: A Test of Split Labor Market Theory*
Corzine, J., Huff‐Corzine, L., & Creech, J. C. (1988) · Sociological Inquiry · doi:10.1111/j.1475-682x.1988.tb01061.x · Cited by 81
Social media rumors as improvised public opinion: semantic network analyses of twitter discourses during Korean saber rattling 2013
Kwon, K. H., Bang, C. C., Egnoto, M. J., & Rao, H. R. (2016) · Asian Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/01292986.2015.1130157 · Cited by 80
“According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis (Hovland & Sears, 1940), uncertain crisis situations induce frustration to which individuals respond by displaying aggression toward out-group members and by scapegoating them.”
Background
Public opinion and community penalties
Maruna, S., & King, A. (2013) · Willan eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781843925743-11 · Cited by 79
Understanding Intergroup Anxiety: Are Some People More Anxious than Others?
Blair, I. V., Park, B., & Bachelor, J. (2003) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430203006002002 · Cited by 77
“…Vol 6(2) 151–169 EM O T I O N has long been recognized as important for understanding prejudice and intergroup conflict, with early theories suggesting that frustration, anxiety, and jealousy are the root causes of such problems (Allport, 1954; Bettelheim & Janowitz, 1950; Hovland & Sears, 1940).”
Background
Advertising Theory: Reconceptualizing the Building Blocks
Nan, X., & Faber, R. J. (2004) · Marketing Theory · doi:10.1177/1470593104044085 · Cited by 75
“’s (1939) work on frustration and aggression (initially done at the individual level) to explain inter-group aggression (Hovland and Sears, 1940) and even wars between nations (Tolman, 1942).”
BackgroundMethod
Epidemics, pandemics, and social conflict: Lessons from the past and possible scenarios for COVID-19
Jedwab, R., Khan, A. M., Russ, J. D., & Zaveri, E. D. (2021) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105629 · Cited by 77
“…the wake of the Holocaust, a literature arose in political science, psychology, and sociology investigating the importance of scapegoating as a cause of violence (Doob et al., 1939; Hovland & Sears, 1940; Girard, 1978; Allport, 1979; Staub, 1992; Poppe, 2001; Glick, 2002; Glick, 2005; Glick, 2009).”
Background
Hate groups and hate crime
Ryan, M. E., & Leeson, P. T. (2011) · International Review of Law and Economics · doi:10.1016/j.irle.2011.08.004 · Cited by 72
“In their paper that examined the American South in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Hovland and Sears (1940) found a strong relationship between lynchings of blacks and poor economic conditions.”
Background
Employment Frustration and Alcohol Abuse/Dependence Among Labor Migrants in California
Finch, B. K., Catalano, R. C., Novaco, R. W., & Vega, W. A. (2003) · Journal of Immigrant Health · doi:10.1023/a:1026119226083 · Cited by 71
“It has been invoked to explain the epidemiology of such diverse antisocial behaviors as lynching of African Americans (9), abuse within families (10), and violence among persons with mental illness (11).”
Background
A model of the net effect of job loss on violence.
Catalano, R. A., Novaco, R. W., & McCONNELL, W. A. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1440 · Cited by 72
On the Nature of Prejudice: The Psychological Foundations of Hate.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Pearson, A. R. (2005) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10930-010 · Cited by 69
FILM-MEDIATED FANTASY AGGRESSION AND STRENGTH OF AGGRESSIVE DRIVE1
Siegel, A. E. (1956) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1956.tb04817.x · Cited by 65
SEGREGATION IN NORTHERN IRELAND
Hughes, J., Campbell, A., Hewstone, M., & Cairns, E. (2007) · Policy Studies · doi:10.1080/01442870601121429 · Cited by 64
“Emotion plays an important role in determining behaviour and has long been recognised as having significant implications for intergroup relations (Allport, 1954; Bettelheim & Janowitz, 1950; Hovland & Sears, 1940).”
Background
«Stechen statt Sprechen»: Valenz und Aktivierbarkeit von Stereotypen über Türken
Kahraman, B., & Knoblich, G. (2000) · Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1024//0044-3514.31.1.31 · Cited by 64
Psychological Approaches to Understanding Intergroup Conflicts
Ashmore, R. D., & Boca, F. K. D. (1976) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-018316-9.50011-4 · Cited by 64
disowning our shadow: a psychoanalytic approach to understanding punitive public attitudes
Maruna, S., Matravers, A., & King, A. (2004) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639620490431228 · Cited by 63
Discrimination of a low‐status outgroup: the role of ingroup threat
Cadinu, M., & Reggiori, C. (2002) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.105 · Cited by 63
The Gallows, the Mob, and The Vote: Lethal Sanctioning of Blacks in North Carolina and Georgia, 1882 to 1930
Beck, E. M., Massey, J. L., & Tolnay, S. E. (1989) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053720 · Cited by 62
Reexamining the Link Between Economic Downturns and Racial Antipathy: Evidence That Prejudice Against Blacks Rises During Recessions
Bianchi, E. C., Hall, E. V., & Lee, S. L. (2018) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797618777214 · Cited by 61
Racial Segregation and Southern Lynching
Cook, L. D., Logan, T. D., & Parman, J. M. (2018) · Social Science History · doi:10.1017/ssh.2018.21 · Cited by 61
“Generally, lynching was viewed as either an aggressive response to economic frustration (Hovland and Sears 1940) or a deliberate attempt to improve the economic position of whites relative to blacks (Raper 1933).”
The moderating effect of trigger intensity on triggered displaced aggression
Vasquez, E. A., Denson, T. F., Pedersen, W. C., Stenstrom, D. M., & Miller, N. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.05.007 · Cited by 55
“…aggression occurs when a person is provoked , is prevented from retaliating against the original provocateur, and subsequently aggresses against a seemingly innocent target (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Hovland & Sears, 1940; Marcus- Newhall, Pedersen, Carlson, & Miller, 2000).”
Background
Intra- and Inter-Religious Hate and Violence: A Psychosocial Model
Woolf, L. M., & Hulsizer, M. R. (2003) · Journal of Hate Studies · doi:10.33972/jhs.8 · Cited by 54
Racial Harassment, Ethnic Concentration, and Economic Conditions*
Dustmann, C., Fabbri, F., & Preston, I. P. (2011) · Scandinavian Journal of Economics · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9442.2011.01660.x · Cited by 54
Popular support for the prison build-up
Useem, B., Liedka, R. V., & Piehl, A. M. (2003) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474503005001290 · Cited by 53
Economic Well-Being and Anti-Semitic, Xenophobic, and Racist Attitudes in Germany
Mocan, N. H., & Raschke, C. (2014) · European Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1007/s10657-015-9521-0 · Cited by 52
“Hovland and Sears (1940) reported a negative association between lynchings in 14 southern states of the United States and several indicators of economic conditions, which is confirmed by Hepworth and West (1988), although Green, Glaser and Rich (1998) could not find a significant relationship…”
Background
Group Integration during a Crisis
Hamblin, R. L. (1958) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/001872675801100105 · Cited by 52
White Supremacist Activity and Crossburnings in North Carolina
GREEN, D. P., & Rich, A. (1998) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1023/a:1023082329639 · Cited by 51
A Face Oculta do Racismo no Brasil: Uma Análise Psicossociológica
Camino, L. (2013) · Revista Psicologia Política · Cited by 51
When love meets hate: The relationship between state policies on gay and lesbian rights and hate crime incidence
Levy, B. L., & Levy, D. L. (2016) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.06.008 · Cited by 51
“We also include the unemployment rate as a control for economic conditions because although the literature is mixed, some research finds a relationship between economic downturns and racially-motivated hate crimes (e.g., Beck and Tolnay, 1990; Hovland and Sears, 1940; Soule, 1992).”
BackgroundResult
Layoffs and violence revisited
Catalano, R. A., Novaco, R. W., & McCONNELL, W. A. (2002) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.80003 · Cited by 50
The closing of open minds: Need for closure moderates the impact of uncertainty salience on outgroup discrimination
Brizi, A., Mannetti, L., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2015) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12131 · Cited by 49
Risk Factors for Ethnic Prejudice During Early Adolescence
Kiesner, J., Maass, A., Cadinu, M., & Vallese, I. (2003) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00234 · Cited by 49
Why does ingroup essentialism increase prejudice against minority members?
Zagefka, H., Nigbur, D., González, R., & Tip, L. K. (2012) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.729841 · Cited by 49
Intergroup Threat and Outgroup Attitudes
Brambilla, M., & Butz, D. A. (2012) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000127 · Cited by 48
Why Do the Privileged Resort to Oppression? A Look at Some Intragroup Factors
Postmes, T., & Smith, L. G. E. (2009) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01624.x · Cited by 48
“In line with this, the relation between economic downturn and intergroup hostility is not as clear as some have suggested (Bonacich, 1972; Hovland & Sears, 1940).”
Result

Authors: Hovland, C. I., & Sears, R. R.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
Venue: The Journal of Psychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1940-04
Volume: 9
Issue: 2
Pages: 301-310
ISSN: 0022-3980 (ISSN-L)
1940-1019
DOI: 10.1080/00223980.1940.9917696
OpenAlex: W1968957456
Cited by: 366
References: 6
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 155.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: The Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Race, History, and American Society
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
Keywords: lynching, aggression, economic indicators, racial violence

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Minor Studies of Aggression: VI. Correlation of Lynchings with Economic Indices

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks