Hot Spots of Bus Stop Crime: The Importance of Environmental Attributes

“…of the bus stop from its surroundings, existence of bus shelters, lower traffic and parking, absence of environmental decay lower crime rates loukaitou-sideris (1999) Hot spots of bus stop crime and the environment Coexistence and combination of negative environmental attributes and a…”

“…and near places where they can be overseen by shop owners or residents, replacing pedestrian underpasses with ground-level crossings, eliminating empty alleys, as well as erecting fences and heavy landscaping to block sightlines can increase transparency and reduce fear (Loukaitou-Sideris 1999).”

“…about crime are impeding travel choices and affect transit ridership and revenue (Austin and Buzawa, 1984; Atkins, 1989; Ingalls et al, 1994; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Reed et al, 1999; Wallace et al, 1999), and researchers have written guidelines for safer cities and transit environments…”

“…transit ridership and revenue (Thrasher and Schnell 1974; Austin and Buzawa 1984; Atkins 1989; Ingalls, Hartgen, and Owens 1994; Wallace et al. 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Reed, Wallace, and Rodriguez 1999), and researchers have written guidelines for safer cities and transit environments…”

“About half of all reported bus stop crimes in Los Angeles are committed within a 13-square-mile area that includes downtown and adjacent neighborhoods to the west.(58) These downtown and inner-city bus lines pass through some of the most crime-ridden neighborhoods of the city.”

“The theory has since been referred to as the ‘‘broken windows’’ thesis or theory (e.g., Harcourt 1998; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Sampson and Raudenbush 1999) and has had a significant bearing upon subsequent research and policy developments (e.g., Skogan 1990; Taylor and Covington 1993; Bratton 1995,…”

“…factors have a significant influence on the perception of security and safety by transit users and actual crime rates at and around transit facilities (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Liggett et al., 2001; Loukaitou-Sideris et al., 2001, 2002; Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC), 2002).”

“…characteristics, such as desolation, darkness, and lack of natural surveillance are common at transit settings, affecting not only victimization (Liggett et al., 2001; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999) but also safety perceptions of travelers while in transit (Ceccato, 2013; Natarajan et al., 2017).”

“In contrast to the derelict landscape of Spring & 4th its matched pair is located in a pedestrianfriendly environment in front of the Los Angeles Times office building.”

“The authors would like to thank University of California, Los Angeles, graduate students David DeGrazia, Katsumi Nonaka, Jose Rodriguez, Manuel Soto, Kimberly Yu, and Allison Yoh, who helped with the fieldwork and the input of the data.”

“Equally important for crime levels and geography is the relative position of the station and the neighborhood in the city (Loukaitou-Sideris 1999).”

“Travel researchers do not typically examine built environment features linked to safety or social disorder (exceptions include Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“Several of these studies have found that criminal activity tends to be concentrated in specific nodes or “hot spots” in the city (Nasar and Fisher 1993; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999), including bus and rail transit stations (Liggett, Loukaitou-Sideris, and Iseki 2003; LoukaitouSideris 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris, Liggett, and I…”

“Theft is concentrated at crowded stations at peak travel times, during the early morning and late afternoon rush hours (Burrows, 1980; Pearlstein and Wachs, 1982; Kabundi and Normandeau 1987; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Cozens et al. 2003; Burrell, 2007).”

“A strand of the literature (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999) finds that longer waits lead to more anxiety and concern for personal safety.”

“…uses and crime incidents at stations tends to be statistically significant, as certain environmental features either attract offenders (i.e. offer good opportunities) or influence criminal activities by concentrating potential offenders and encouraging anti-social behavior (Loukaitou-sideris 1999).”

“…& Brantingham, 1995): public housing (Eck, 1994; Newman, 1972; Roncek, Bell, & Francik 1981), bars, clubs, fast food restaurants, liquor stores (Block & Block, 1995; Brantingham & Brantingham, 1995; Roncek & Maier, 1991), and bus stops (Golledge & Stimson, 1997; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“Loukaitou-Sideris (1999) focused on the 10 highest-crime bus stops in LA.”

“The positive relationship has held across differing threshold distances of within: one block (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999), three blocks (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1982), 161 meters (Lawton, 2009); 488 meters (1,600 feet) (McCord and Ratcliffe, 2007); and within 1609 meters (one mile) (Rengert et…”

“A number of studies have examined the manifestation of crime and disorder on public transport systems (Sloan-Howitt and Kelling 1997; Easteal and Wilson 1991; Clarke 1996; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; La Vigne 1997; Church et al. 2000; Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2001).”

“…the other hand, most public nuisance crimes (e.g. pick pocketing, street drinking, buying and selling of drugs and stolen merchandize) occurred when there was a large volume of pedestrian traffic, which served to effectively screen low-level offences (Mayhew et al., 1979; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“These risk factors are gang members (Braga, 2004; Kennedy, Piehl, & Braga, 1996), bus stops (Golledge & Stimson, 1997; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Roman, 2005), schools (Roncek, 2000; Roncek & Maier, 1991), public housing (Eck, 1994; Newman, 1972; Roncek, Bell, & Francik, 1981), and facilities of…”

“Public transportation creates impersonal spaces that bring together different social groups, attract motivated offenders, and create opportunities for crime (see, for example, Levine and Wachs 1986; Block and Davies 1996; Poister 1996; LaVigne 1997; Tremblay and Tremblay 1998; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999).”

“Previous studies have been indicative but not predictive of the physical elements that contribute to bus stop crime (1, 5, 11).”

“Looking speci® cally at transit stops, researchers have shown the relationship between adverse environmental conditions and criminal activity (Levine & Wachs, 1985; Levine et al., 1986; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“(La Vigne 1996; Schulz and Gilbert 1996; Smith and Clarke 2000; Smith 2008; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2001).”

“Other studies on transit stations in the US and UK also showed that crimes at transit stations were related to the land use and socioeconomic status around stations (Block and Davis 1996; La Vigne 1996a; Liggett et al. 2003; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2002; Newton and Bowers 2007; Newton et al. 2…”

“houses (Choi et al., 2000; Lee, 1997; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“Therefore, robberies may also be largely attributed to “the intensity of activity on the street” (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999, p. 397).”

“Further, it has been shown that low-crime bus stops, as compared to high crime bus stops, were noted for better surveillance opportunities and fewer environmentally negative attributes (Loukaitou-Sideris 1999).”

“…segment Municipality of Milan 2013 Guardian Control Personal care shops Total number of personal care shops on each street segment Municipality of Milan 2013 Guardian Control Source: author’s elaboration. of bus stops on criminal behaviour (Levine et al., 1986; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Yu, 2011).”

“…suggested that public transportation is a mechanism of crime diffusion (Block and Block, 2000; Taylor and Harrel, 1996) and that robbery, violent crimes, and other street problems are positively associated with bus stops or rapid transit stations (Block and Davis, 1996; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“…1977; Wagner, 1997); isolated cul-de-sacs generally have lower rates of burglary than more permeable grid layouts (Newman, 1995), while most minor nuisance crimes (street drinking, buying and selling drugs, etc) occur in areas with large amounts of pedestrian traffic (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“This also has been observed in relation to public transport with regard to bus stops (Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2001).”

“A number of studies have focussed on crime near bus stops (Loukaitou-Sideris 1999, Liggett et al., 2001, Newton and Bowers 2007, and Newton 2007).”

“…of closed-circuit television (CCTV) (Priks, 2015; Webb and Laycock, 1992); and the architectural design of the station itself, such as the provision of open lines of sight and adequate lighting (La Vigne, 1996; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Newton et al., 2014), on the control of violent behaviour.”

“…settings, including check-cashing outlets and ATMs (Holt and Spencer 2005), pawnshops and bars (Roncek and Maier 1991), schools (Block and Block 1995; Roncek and LoBosco 1983), and public transportation nodes (Hart and Miethe 2014; Levine and Wachs 1985; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Newton 2004).”

“…from minor nuisances to serious offences (Ross, Mirowsky, & Pribesh, 2002) and different crimes can be either facilitated or inhibited by the presence or absence of people (e.g., crowds conceal low-level crimes but can protect against serious offences) (Angel, 1968; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“Loukaitou-Sideris (1999) examined ten of the highest crime bus stops in Los Angeles that accounted for 18 % of all reported crime around bus stops, finding that they were more likely than other stops to be situated in poor, high-crime neighborhoods, on busy intersections in commercial areas, and…”

“Liggett, Loukaitou-Sideris, Iseki (2003a) expanded on the prior study somewhat to include 100 Los Angeles bus stops, and focused on the”

“While subsequent environmental criminology studies indicate that higher densities generally increase crime (Cozens and Hillier, 2012), and that large volumes of people can serve to mask low-level offences (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999), the concept of a density ‘threshold’ may nonetheless remain relevant to residents’ perc…”

“…data on physical disorder has relied on neighborhood/local area surveys (Taylor et al., 1985; Perkins et al., 1992, 1993; Perkins and Taylor, 1996; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Sampson and Raudenbush, 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris et al., 2002; Wei et al., 2005), which are temporally static and subject to…”

“The presence of bus stops in the area (Loukaitou-Sideris 1999; Brantingham and Brantingham 1995; Newton and Bowers 2007) have been linked to increased crime risks such as burglary and robbery.”

“Examining both social context and land uses in Los Angeles, Loukaitou-Sideris (1999) found that bus stops increase crime.”

“…these businesses (eigenvalue = 1.80, factor loadings >0.95).5 The number of bus stops is also considered an important facilitator for encouraging the convergence of victims and offenders (Irvin-Erickson and La Vigne, 2015; Loukaitou-Sideris 1999), as are public facilities (Weisburd et al. 2012).”

“The literature has listed five risk factors found to be correlated with crimes and, in particular, violence: gang members (Braga & Clarke, 2014; Kennedy, Piehl, & Braga, 1996), schools (Roncek & Maier, 1991), public housing (Newman, 1972; Roncek, Bell, & Francik, 1981), facilities of bars, clubs, fast food restaurants…”

“Indeed, there is significant variation in the frequency and type of crime experienced between bus stops and across different times of the day at any individual bus stop (Ceccato et al., 2015; Ceccato and Uittenbogaard, 2014; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris et al., 2002).”

“Loukaitou-Sideris finds that environmental characteristics surrounding bus stops have a significant influence on perceptions of safety (25).”

“For instance, guardians may prevent serious offenses; yet, large numbers of people can serve to mask lowlevel offenses (e.g., pick pocketing, drug sales), minimizing their effectiveness (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“An additional hypothesis on the relationship between crowd density and crime is described by Loukaitou-Sideris (1999).”

“Employing CPTED concepts to enhance defensibility, awareness, and surveillance could influence these choices over time. analysis of Crime Distribution in Chicago In this study, the Chicago Police Department’s crime data set is used to perform a spatial analysis of the crime density distribution in the city (13).”

“is highly associated with high robbery rates, which is consistent with the findings from several previous studies (Loukaitou-sideris 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris, Liggett, and Iseki 2002; IrvinErickson and La Vigne 2015).”

“…spots of crime include street blocks near bars (Roncek and Maier, 1991), entertainment districts (Cochran, Bromley, and Branch, 2000), casinos (Stitt, Nichols, and Giacopassi, 2003), some street segments in cities (Weisburd, Bushway, Lum, and Yang, 2004), and bus stops (Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999).”

“Bus stops (Bernasco and Block, 2011; Brantingham et al, 1991; Levine and Wachs, 1986a; 1986b; Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999) and light rail and subway transportation stops (Block and Davis, 1996; Brantingham et al, 1991; McCord and Ratcliffe, 2009) link to higher crime.”

“By comparison, only a few studies have empirically investigated perceived environment by focusing on transit passengers’ perceptions of the transit environment (5, 6).”

“Loukaitou-Sideris (1999) closely observed a small number of bus stops in Los Angeles to determine if certain features lend themselves to crime.”