Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED): a review and modern bibliography

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Any crime has four dimensions: the law, the offender, the target and the location.

“Brantingham and Brantingham (1991) have argued that there are four dimensions to any crime namely, the law, the offender, the target and the location.”

• cites Brantingham and Brantingham (1991)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Where police evaluated a city regulation requiring two staff on duty, robberies declined immediately after the regulation was introduced and for several years afterward.

“Where police evaluated a city regulation requiring two staff to be on duty, robberies declined immediately after the regulation was introduced (Clifton, 1987) and for several years afterward (Bellamy, 1996).”

• cites Clifton, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bellamy, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A second level of population density exists where density is high enough to mask less serious offences such as pick pocketing and petty theft.

“Loukaitou-Sideris (1999) has proposed that a second level population density exists; where the density is sufficiently high to mask a range of less serious offences such as pick pocketing and petty theft.”

• cites Loukaitou-Sideris (1999) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The existence of natural surveillance opportunities in the built environment does not necessarily mean that surveillance is routinely taking place or that direct action by citizens is guaranteed.

“However, the existence of natural surveillance opportunities within the built environment does not necessarily mean that surveillance is routinely taking place, or that any direct action by citizens (e.g.challenging, reporting or direct intervention) is guaranteed (Barr and Pease, 1992).”

• cites Barr and Pease, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Crime is not randomly distributed, and crime hot spots have been recognised since the mid-nineteenth century.

“Indeed, crime is not randomly distributed and 'hot spots' of crime have been acknowledged since the midnineteenth century (Guerry, 1833;Fletcher, 1849;Mayhew, 1862)”

• cites Guerry, 1833Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Fletcher, 1849Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mayhew, 1862Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Strategies to control access may reduce thefts of vehicles but may do little to affect theft from vehicles; what guards actually do may be as important as their physical presence.

“Poyner (1991) notes that strategies to control access may reduce thefts of vehicles, but may do little to impact on theft from vehicles, raising the issue that what guards actually do may be as important as their physical presence.”

• cites Poyner (1991)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Access control and surveillance help promote territoriality by encouraging legitimate users' informal social control.

“Access control and surveillance will also contribute towards promoting territoriality by promoting legitimate users' informal social control.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CPTED strategies are not independent; they act together to use physical attributes to separate public, semi-public and private space, define ownership and acceptable usage, and promote surveillance.

“These strategies are not independent of one another, and they act in concert to use physical attributes to separate public, public-private and private space, to define ownership (e.g.fences, pavement treatments, signs, landscaping and artwork) and define acceptable patterns of usage, in addition to promoting opportunities for surveillance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Evaluating the effectiveness of specific place-based crime prevention measures is as difficult as untangling a spider's web.

“Indeed, Schneider and Kitchen (2002, p158) comment that in practice, “it would be as difficult as untangling a spider's web to evaluate the effectiveness of specific place-based crime prevention measures”.”

• cites Schneider and Kitchen (2002, p158)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One study found no relationship between having two staff rather than one and fewer robberies.

“Even though a study by La Vigne (1991) found no such relationship”

• cites La Vigne (1991)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Security guards prevent bank robberies, as do protective screens.

“Security guards have long been used to reduce crime and have been shown to prevent bank robberies (Hannan, 1982) along with the use of protective screens (Grandjean, 1990).”

• cites Hannan, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Grandjean, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Enhanced territoriality has been linked to reduced recorded crime and reduced fear of crime.

“Although still controversial, enhanced levels of territoriality have been linked to reduced levels of recorded crime and fear of crime (e.g.Taylor et al., 1985;Brown, 1987;Brown and Perkins, 1992;Perkins et al., 1992;Perkins and Taylor, 1996;Brown, 2001;Ratcliffe, 2003).”

• cites Taylor et al., 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Brown, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ratcliffe, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Territoriality varies between cultures, neighbourhoods and individual groups.

“Indeed, Merry (1981) observes how territoriality varies between cultures, neighbourhoods and individual groups.”

• cites Merry (1981) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Policymakers and practitioners want quick decisions about whether a measure has reduced crime, while academics stress that proper evaluation takes time.

“Gill and Turbin (1999, p180) concur “policymakers and practitioners want quick decisions about whether a measure has been 'effective' or has reduced crime, while academics stress the need to do things properly, which takes time”.”

• cites Gill and Turbin (1999, p180)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Canadian ferry and Dutch ticket-monitoring studies did not use control groups as a baseline comparison or include other independent factors that might reduce crime in the wider community.

“However, neither of these studies used control groups as a baseline comparison against which to measure existing trends, or to include other independent factors that may be acting to reduce crime in the wider community.”

• cites Deschamps et al., 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites VanAndel, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Linear integrated spaces with some through movement and strong intervisibility of good numbers of entrances are the safest spaces.

“Research being conducted at University College London, at the Space Syntax Laboratory claims “linear integrated spaces with some through movement and strong intervisibility of good numbers of entrances … are the safest spaces” (Hillier and Shu, 2000b, p4).”

• cites Hillier and Shu, 2000b, p4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The currently available evidence on CPTED is inconclusive and much criticised, which prevents central government from widely intervening and investing in the approach.

“However, the evidence currently available is inconclusive and much criticised, which effectively prevents widespread intervention and investment in such an approach by central government.”

May combine two claims.

Physical design can promote informal or natural surveillance opportunities for residents and their agents, and surveillance is part of capable guardianship.

“Physical design has the capacity to promote informal or natural surveillance opportunities for residents and their agents and surveillance is part of capable guardianship (Painter and Tilley, 1999).”

• cites Painter and Tilley, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

CCTV installation on buses reduced vandalism on the targeted buses and produced diffusion of benefits to the entire fleet.

“Poyner (1988) reviewed the effectiveness of the installation of CCTV on buses and found reductions in vandalism on the targeted buses and the diffusion of benefits to the entire fleet.”

• cites Poyner (1988)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CPTED is increasingly fashionable and is being implemented globally.

“CPTED is both an increasingly fashionable approach and is being implemented on a global scale (Cisneros, 1995).”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “As a place-based crime prevention strategy, Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) emerged as an independent theory and is now increasingly fashionable and is being implemented worldwide (Cisneros, 1995).”

• cites Cisneros, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Although empirical proof has not been definitively demonstrated, a large and growing body of research supports CPTED as a pragmatic and effective crime prevention tool.

“The authors detail the difficulties associated with demonstrating the effectiveness of CPTED and conclude that although empirical proof has not been definitively demonstrated, there is a large and growing body of research, which supports the assertion that CPTED is a pragmatic and effective crime prevention tool.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CPTED emphasises crime prevention techniques that exploit environmental opportunities to naturally and routinely facilitate access control and surveillance and to reinforce positive behaviour in the use of the environment.

“CPTED emphasises crime prevention techniques that exploit the opportunities in the environment “both to naturally and routinely facilitate access control and surveillance, and to reinforce positive behaviour in the use of the environment” (Crowe, 2000, p37).”

• cites Crowe, 2000, p37Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

There is very little substantive research evidence that CCTV works.

“Evaluating the effectiveness of CCTV is also problematic and despite the rapid growth in the deployment of CCTV, particularly in British cities Armitage (2002, p1) argues, “there is very little substantive research evidence …that CCTV works”.”

• cites Armitage (2002, p1)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Certain critical levels of street activity and population density are linked to crime.

“Angel (1968) predicted that certain critical levels of street activity and population density were linked to crime.”

• cites Angel (1968)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

If the spatial distribution of offences and offenders were random, environmental criminology would be of little interest to scholars or policy commentators.

“Crucially, Herbert and Hyde (1985) note that if the spatial distribution of offences and offenders were random, then environmental criminology would be of little interest to either scholars or commentators on either criminal or social policy.”

• cites Herbert and Hyde (1985)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In car parks, there was evidence of a significant 41% reduction in vehicle crime in experimental areas compared with control areas, although other strategies such as lighting and signage were also present in all five studies.

“In car parks, however, there was evidence of a significant (41%) reduction in vehicle crime in experimental areas compared with control areas (although other strategies, such as lighting and signage, were also present in all the five studies of car parks).”

• cites Welsh and Farrington (2002)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Of 103 lighting studies, only 15 were considered sufficiently rigorous for evaluation; the review of these studies found the results inconclusive and recommended using other indicators of crime in addition to recorded crime data.

“Of 103 studies, only 15 were considered sufficiently rigorous for evaluation and the review of these studies found that the results were inconclusive, and that other indicators of crime should be used in addition to recorded crime data.”

• cites Tien et al., 1979Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A systematic review of CCTV in 18 evaluations found an overall 5% reduction in recorded crime, and half of the studies, all in the UK, revealed a fall in recorded crime.

“Overall, a 5% reduction in recorded crime was reported and half of the studies, (all in the UK) revealed a fall in recorded crime.”

• cites Welsh and Farrington (2002)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Chicago, enclosing ground floor entrances to public housing complexes in new lobbies with concierges and metal detectors led most residents to report significant reductions in shootings, violence and drug dealing, with no control group.

“In Chicago (Popkin et al, 1995a(Popkin et al, , 1995b)), ground floor entrances to public housing complexes were enclosed in new lobbies with the installation of concierges and metal detectors.Most residents reported significant reductions in shootings, violence and drug dealing (no control group).”

• cites Popkin et al, 1995aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Popkin et al, 1995bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Farrington and Welsh argue that the review should have stimulated more studies but was mistakenly interpreted as showing that lighting had no obvious effect on crime, and funding for research on this topic in the USA evaporated.

“Farrington and Welsh (2002) argue that this review should have stimulated more studies but was mistakenly interpreted as demonstrating that lighting had no obvious effect on levels of crime and funding for research on this topic in the USA evaporated.”

• cites Farrington and Welsh (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

CCTV in Doncaster, UK reduced vehicle crime while other property crimes were not reduced.

“Skinns (1998) evaluated CCTV in Doncaster (UK) and found vehicle crime reduced while other property crimes were not.”

• cites Skinns (1998)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A study using experimental and control areas showed reductions in crime and an increase in pedestrian street use, and concluded that there was a substantial and significant decrease in all categories of crime after improved street lighting.

“A study by Painter and Farrington (1997), which used experimental and control areas, showed reductions in crime and an increase in pedestrian street use.They concluded “in the experimental area, there was a substantial and significant decrease in the incidence of all categories of crime after the improved street lighting” (Painter and Farrington, 1997, p221).”

• cites Painter and Farrington (1997, p221)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Evaluations are suggestive of possible beneficial effects in reducing pedestrian movement through large public housing complexes.

“From this overview, Eck (1997, p7-8) states; “these evaluations are suggestive of possible beneficial effects in reducing pedestrian movement through large public housing complexes”.”

• cites Eck (1997, p7-8)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A Home Office funded study in Wandsworth found no effect on crime, as did a review by Ramsay, although it suggested improved street lighting could reduce fear of crime.

“A Home Office funded study (Atkins et al., 1991) conducted in Wandsworth found no effect on crime, as did a review by Ramsay (1991) although it did suggest improved street lighting could reduce the fear of crime.”

• cites Atkins et al., 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ramsay (1991)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The effectiveness of CCTV remains to be established in what locations and under what conditions.

“They conclude that the effectiveness of CCTV “remains to be established in what locations and under what conditions” (Wilson and Sutton, 2003, p6)”

• cites Wilson and Sutton, 2003, p6Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In city centre and public housing areas there was little evidence of crime reduction from CCTV; in four public transport studies, two found reductions, one found no effect and one found an increase in recorded crime.

“In terms of the city centre and public housing areas there was little evidence of crime reduction and in four public transport studies, two found reductions, one found no effect and one found an increase in recorded crime.”

• cites Welsh and Farrington (2002)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Natural surveillance, formal surveillance and mechanical surveillance strategies have all proven effective in reducing both crime and the fear of crime.

“In summary, natural surveillance (e.g.residents' self-surveillance opportunities as facilitated by windows) formal surveillance (e.g.police patrols) and mechanical surveillance strategies (e.g.street lighting and CCTV) have all proven effective in reducing both crime and the fear of crime.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The preventative potential of CCTV has a life cycle such that, unless routine management and publicity are maintained, any initial reductions in crime will evaporate.

“She also highlights the fact that the preventative potential of CCTV has a life cycle such that, unless routine management and publicity is maintained, any initial reductions in crime will evaporate (Webb and Laycock, 1992;Brown, 1995;Tilley, 1993;Armitage et al., 1999).”

• cites Webb and Laycock, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Brown, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tilley, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

CCTV appears to have no effect on violent crime, a significant effect on vehicle crimes, and is most effective when used in car parks.

“Armitage (2002, p5) summarises this review (Welsh and Farrington, 2002) suggesting, “CCTV appears to have no effect on violent crime, a significant effect on vehicle crimes and it is most effective when used in car parks”.”

• cites Armitage (2002, p5)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Welsh and Farrington, 2002Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

At Clason Point in New York's Bronx, reducing routes through the public housing complex and improving lighting and surface appearance was followed by a significant 54% reduction in crime, although there was no control group.

“At Clason Point in New York's Bronx district such routes through the public housing complex were reduced in number and the lighting and surface appearance of the buildings was improved.A significant reduction in crime (54%) was reported (Newman, 1996) although there was no control group.”

• cites Newman, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

CCTV has a significant crime reduction effect on recorded vehicle crime, from eight studies, but no effect on violent crime, from five studies.

“CCTV was found to have a significant crime reduction effect on recorded vehicle crime (from 8 studies) but no effect on violent crime (from 5 studies).”

• cites Welsh and Farrington (2002)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Studies in Cardiff, Hull, Leeds and Strathclyde produced inconclusive findings using before and after comparisons but failed to provide a control area.

“Other studies in Cardiff (Herbert and Moore, 1991), Hull (Davidson and Goodey, 1991), Leeds (Burden and Murphy, 1991) and Strathclyde (Ditton et al, 1993) produced inconclusive findings using “before” and “after” comparisons but failed to provide a control area (Painter and Farrington, 1997).”

• cites Herbert and Moore, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Davidson and Goodey, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ditton et al, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CCTV significantly decreased all recorded property crime in Burnley, UK.

“Armitage et al., (1999) discovered CCTV significantly decreased all recorded property crime (burglary, car crime, criminal damage, handling stolen goods and fraud) in Burnley (UK).”

• cites Armitage et al., (1999)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Areas with unregulated access have more crime than areas with street layouts with more restricted access.

“According to Eck (1997) research has suggested that areas with unregulated access have more crime than areas with street layouts with more restricted access (White, 1990; Beavon 8.”

• cites White, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Beavon et al., 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The effects of CCTV on crime can begin before the cameras become operational because of publicity campaigns.

“Armitage (2002) observes how the effects of CCTV on crime can begin before the cameras become operational (Brown, 1995) by virtue of publicity campaigns.”

• cites Armitage (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Brown, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Problems with measuring and comparing studies on the effectiveness of CCTV are made worse by the extensive range of different CCTV systems and by variable and unscientific monitoring and management strategies.

“Moreover, in consideration of the extensive range of different CCTV systems and the variable and unscientific monitoring and management strategies that are in operation, the problems associated with measuring and comparing studies on the effectiveness”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is strong evidence that improving management of rental properties can reduce drug related crime.

“In terms of the management of private rental housing, Eck (1997, p7-10) argues, “we have strong evidence that improving management of rental properties can reduce drug related crime”.”

• cites Eck (1997, p7-10)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Finsbury Park, after road closures and increased policing, soliciting and kerb-crawling virtually disappeared with little recorded displacement and reported crime fell by 50%.

“After road closures (and an increase in policing prior to the road closures) in Finsbury Park, soliciting and kerb-crawling virtually disappeared (with little recorded displacement) and reported crime fell by 50% (Matthews, 1992).”

• cites Matthews, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Streatham, a similar project reported a decline in traffic flows along major thoroughfares, a reduction in arrests of kerb-crawlers, and residents reported a decline in prostitution at street level.

“In Streatham a similar project reported a decline in traffic flows along major thoroughfares, a reduction in arrests of kerb-crawlers (although there may be several explanations of this) and residents reported a decline in prostitution at street level (Matthews, 1993).”

• cites Matthews, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

No significance tests were conducted for the Lasley study, but street closure evaluations have been conducted with greater rigour and appear promising.

“Although Eck (1997) observes that no significance tests were conducted for this study, he concludes that street closure evaluations have been conducted with greater rigour and appear to be promising.”

• cites Eck (1997)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the UK, 61% of recorded burglaries involved forced entry through doors and windows, with 37% forced open and 24% smashed; 22% involved no forced entry where locks and windows were left open.

“In the UK, (Budd, 1999, p60) reports intimated that 61% of recorded burglaries involved forced entry through doors and windows (37% were forced open, 24% were smashed).However, 22% involved no forced entry, where locks and windows were left open (Budd, 1999).”

• cites Budd, 1999, p60Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pedestrian traffic seems to increase risk from the standpoint of target selection and decrease risk from the standpoint of natural surveillance, depending on whether the traffic is through traffic or local traffic.

“Sorensen (2003, p34) observes, “pedestrian traffic thus seems to increase risk (from the standpoint of target selection) and decrease risk (from the standpoint of natural surveillance) depending on whether that traffic is through traffic or local traffic”.”

• cites Sorensen (2003, p34)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Activity generation and support seeks to place inherently unsafe activities, such as those involving money transactions, in safe locations with high activity and surveillance opportunities.

“Crowe (2000) notes how within reason, activity generation and support seeks to place inherently “unsafe” activities (such as those involving money transactions) in “safe” locations (those with high levels of activity and with surveillance opportunities).”

• cites Crowe (2000)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The issue of permeability is currently hotly contested, with some CPTED applications seeking to minimise escape routes while others support optimising permeability to promote maximum activity levels.

“Crucially, in terms of theory, practice and policy the issue of 'permeability' (the levels of through traffic and pedestrian movement) is currently hotly contested with some CPTED applications seeking to minimise escape routes (e.g.SBD), while others (e.g.'New Urbanism') support optimising permeability to promote maximum activity levels.”

May combine two claims.

Three recent SBD evaluations reported reduced recorded crime and reduced perceptions of fear of crime.

“three recent SBD evaluations (Armitage, 1999;Pascoe, 1999 andBrown, 1999) have all reported positive results in terms of reduced levels of recorded crime and perceptions of fear of crime”

• cites Armitage, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pascoe, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Brown, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Promoting street-level activity by encouraging residential provision above retail units is a relatively recent innovation.

“Furthermore, promoting street-level activity by encouraging the practice of residential provision above retail units is a relatively recent innovation (Wekerle and Whitzman, 1995; Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004).”

• cites Wekerle and Whitzman, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

New automatic gates curtailed fare evasion on public transport and reportedly increased ticket sales by some 10% compared with control stations without gates.

“while new automatic gates have curtailed fare evasion on public transport and reportedly increased ticket sales of some 10% in comparison with control stations without gates (Clarke, 1993).”

• cites Clarke, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Research has consistently found that the presence of neighbourhood incivilities results in increased levels of fear.

“Ross and Mirowsky (1999) claim that research has consistently found that the presence of neighbourhood incivilities results in increased levels of fear (Covington and Taylor, 1991;Lewis and Maxfield, 1980;Perkins et al., 1990;Perkins and Taylor, 1996;Rohe andBurby, 1988 andTaylor andCovington, 1993).”

• cites Ross and Mirowsky (1999) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Covington and Taylor, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Perkins and Taylor, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Safe activities serve as magnets for ordinary citizens who may then discourage the presence of criminals.

“Similarly, “safe” activities serve as magnets for ordinary citizens who may then act to Through Environmental Design (CPTED): A Review and Modern Bibliography.Journal of Property Management.Volume 23,Issue 5, discourage the presence of criminals.”

May combine two claims.

The review indicates that each CPTED component-surveillance, access control, territorial reinforcement, activity support, image/management, and target hardening-has individually contributed to reducing crime and fear of crime across a broad range of studies.

“In summary, the review of the CPTED components of surveillance, access control, territorial reinforcement, activity support, image / management, and target hardening intimates that they have all individually contributed to reducing crime and the fear of crime in a broad range of studies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Excessive use of target hardening tactics can create a fortress mentality and imagery whereby residents withdraw behind physical barriers and the self-policing capacity of the built environment is damaged, working against CPTED strategies that rely on surveillance, territoriality and image.

“Crucially, excessive use of target hardening tactics can create a 'fortress mentality' and imagery whereby residents withdraw behind physical barriers and the selfpolicing capacity of the built environment is damaged, effectively working against CPTED strategies which rely on surveillance, territoriality and image.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Target hardening increases the efforts offenders must expend in the commission of a crime and is the most long-established and traditional approach to crime prevention.

“Target hardening increases the efforts that offenders must expend in the commission of a crime and is the most long-established and traditional approach to crime prevention.”

May combine two claims.

In Five Oaks, Ohio, total recorded crime in the city rose 1% while in the target neighbourhood recorded crime declined by 26% and violent crime declined by 50%; half of residents stated fear of crime had been reduced and housing values increased.

“Newman's study of the changes to a grid street layout of the Five Oaks neighbourhood in Ohio (1996) found that total recorded crime in the city rose 1% while in the target neighbourhood recorded crime declined by 26% and violent crime declined by 50%.Half of the residents stated that fear of crime had been reduced and Newman reported that housing values had increased.”

• cites Newman (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

On the New York subway, a clean-up programme to remove graffiti significantly reduced graffiti, and arrests for the offence declined despite increased police attention to graffiti.

“On public transport, a clean up programme was undertaken to remove graffiti from all train cars and stations (Sloan-Howitt and Kelling, 1990) on the New York subway system.Graffiti was significantly reduced and in spite of increased police attention to graffiti, arrests for the offence also declined.”

• cites Sloan-Howitt and Kelling, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There is much disagreement concerning whether target hardening should be considered a component of CPTED.

“However, there is much disagreement concerning whether or not target hardening should be considered as a component of CPTED.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Increased numbers of pedestrians may provide additional eyes on the street and potentially discourage some offences, but may also encourage and provide other targets for crime such as pick-pocketing.

“Although increased numbers of pedestrians may provide additional 'eyes on the street' and potentially discourage some offences, this may also actually encourage and provide other targets for crime (e.g.pick-pocketing).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Promoting a positive image and routinely maintaining the built environment ensures that the physical environment continues to function effectively and transmits positive signals to all users.

“Promoting a positive image and routinely maintaining the built environment ensures that the physical environment continues to function effectively and transmits positive signals to all users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The significance of the physical condition and image of the built environment and its effect on crime and fear of crime has long been acknowledged, and an extensive body of research exists.

“The significance of the physical condition and 'image' of the built environment and the effect this may have on crime and the fear of crime has long been acknowledged (Lynch, 1960) and an extensive body of research now exists.”

• cites Lynch, 1960Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Victoria, Australia, a programme promoting rapid repair and rehabilitation of vandalised equipment increased train availability by 45% and reported crimes against the person declined by 42%.

“In Victoria, Australia, following a programme promoting the rapid repair and rehabilitation of vandalised equipment, Carr and Spring (1993) found that train availability increased 45% and reported crimes against the person declined 42%.”

• cites Carr and Spring (1993)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The environmental image offenders have of an area is associated with the extent to which the area is victimised.

“Indeed, for Taylor (1991, p970) “the environmental 'image' offenders have of an area is associated with the extent to which the area is victimised”.”

• cites Taylor (1991, p970)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wilson and Kelling's Broken Windows thesis stressed the vital importance of maintaining the environment as a physical indicator of levels of social cohesion and informal social control.

“Wilson and Kelling's 'Broken Windows' thesis (1982) stressed the vital importance of maintaining the environment as a physical indicator of levels of social cohesion and informal social control”

• cites Wilson and Kelling (1982)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Systematic zoning of areas for particular uses reduces the number of potential eyes on the street.

“It is contended that the systematic zoning of areas for particular uses reduces the number of potential 'eyes on the street' (Jacobs, 1961).”

• cites Jacobs, 1961Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

CPTED has been found to reduce crime and fear of crime in numerous evaluations and to increase property values and investment in the area.

“Clearly, CPTED has been found to reduce crime and the fear of crime in numerous evaluations and to increase property values and investment in the area.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Irrational offenders, such as those intoxicated by alcohol or drugs, are potentially less likely to be deterred by first-generation CPTED strategies, but may also be less likely to respond predictably to any crime prevention initiative.

“Firstly, 'irrational' offenders (e.g.those intoxicated by alcohol or drugs) are potentially less likely to be deterred by 1 st Generation CPTED strategies, but similarly, they might be less likely to respond predictably to any crime prevention initiatives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When CPTED is applied without sufficient community participation and becomes overly reliant on target hardening, a 'fortress mentality' can result, in which citizens and neighbourhoods withdraw behind walls, fences, and fortified homes.

“An finally, when CPTED is applied without sufficient community participation and becomes overly reliant on target hardening, a 'fortress mentality' can result, where citizens and neighbourhoods (e.g.gated communities) withdraw behind walls, fences, and fortified homes.”

May combine two claims.

Negative socio-economic and demographic dynamics can reduce the efficacy of CPTED strategies, while positive dynamics can enhance it.

“Secondly, negative socio-economic and demographic dynamics can also reduce the efficacy of CPTED strategies, or enhance the efficacy of CPTED if those dynamics are positive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent research from America suggests displacement can be used as a positive tool rather than a negative side-effect.

“However, recent research from America, suggests that displacement can be utilised as a positive tool, rather than as a negative side-effect (Saville, 1998).”

• cites Saville, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Feins et al. found that location-based crime prevention tactics are suggestive of reducing crime but are not proof.

“Feins et al., (1997) extensively reviewed four residential areas noting that the cases”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · hedged

  “are 'suggestive' that location-based crime prevention tactics …do reduce crime, although they are not 'proof' that this is the result”

• cites Feins et al., (1997)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Schneider and Kitchen, 2002, p158Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There are a large number of place-focused prevention tactics with evidence of effectiveness.

“Eck (2002, p241) claims”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · plain

  “there are a large number of place-focused prevention tactics with evidence of effectiveness”

• cites Eck (2002, p241)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Knowledge of which CPTED strategies work is severely limited because places themselves have only recently become a subject of study.

“Eck (2002, p242) notes that knowledge of which CPTED strategies work”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · plain

  “is severely limited because places themselves have only recently become a subject of study (Eck and Weisburd, 1995)”

• cites Eck (2002, p242)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Eck and Weisburd, 1995Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The ecological threshold or 'tipping point' of a neighbourhood is the notion that, like a natural ecosystem, it has a limited capacity for certain activities and functions.

“Fourthly, the ecological threshold or 'tipping point' (Saville, 1996) of a neighbourhood is the notion that like any natural ecosystem, it has a limited capacity for certain activities and functions.”

• cites Saville, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Displacement occurs as a negative side-effect of all existing crime prevention initiatives and is not exclusive to CPTED.

“Moreover, it can also be argued that displacement occurs as a negative side-effect of all existing crime prevention initiatives and is not a criticism that is exclusive to CPTED.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Merry identified 'undefended space' where cultural and social factors influence the propensity for resident action and self-policing.

“Merry (1981) identified 'undefended space' where cultural and social factors influence the propensity for resident action and self-policing.”

• cites Merry (1981) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CPTED is most successful when residents are made aware of and educated about the design strategies implemented and their role in maximizing the potential of these strategies.

“it is most successful”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · plain

  “when residents are made aware of and educated upon the design strategies that have been implemented and their role in maximising the potential of these strategies”

• cites Schneider (2002, p389)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In that California industrial park, the costs of security measures were far outweighed by income from increased rents, higher occupancy rates, and shorter vacancy periods.

“the costs of the security measures were far outweighed by income generated from increased rents, higher occupancy rates and shorter vacancy periods (Schneider and Kitchen, 2002).”

• cites Schneider and Kitchen, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Poyner's review of 122 evaluations found that for all crime, 24 of 45 environmental design or improvement evaluations showed firm evidence of crime reduction, and a further 12 showed limited evidence.

“Poyner (1993) reviewed 122 evaluations of crime prevention projects and found that for all crime, over half of the evaluations in the environmental design or improvement category (24 out of 45) demonstrated firm evidence of crime reduction.A further 12 evaluations indicated limited evidence of crime reduction.”

• cites Poyner (1993)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The concept of neighbourhood capacity and the tipping point is one of the four principles of second-generation CPTED; the other three are community culture, cohesion, and connectivity.

“This concept of neighbourhood capacity and the tipping point is one of the four principles of 2 nd Generation CPTED, the other three being community culture, cohesion, and connectivity (Saville andCleveland, 2003a, 2003b).”

• cites Saville andCleveland, 2003a, 2003bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Multiple interventions inevitably obscure detailed understanding of what each intervention contributed.

“However, multiple interventions inevitably obscure the detailed understanding of what each intervention contributed.”

May combine two claims.

Compared with three other urban rail transit systems, the Washington D.C. Metro had lower recorded crime, and its crime was not correlated with crime levels in spaces immediately above the station.

“When compared to three other urban rail transit systems recorded crime was lower and was not correlated with the crime levels associated with the spaces immediately above the station.”

• cites La Vigne, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Harbordale, Florida, CPTED interventions resulted in a 5.5% increase in property values.

“Harbordale in Florida, where interventions resulted in increasing property values (5.5%)”

• cites Schneider and Kitchen (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The precise details of what worked and how it worked are not revealed in multiple strategy interventions.

“However, the precise details of what worked and how it worked are clearly not revealed in such a multiple strategy intervention.”

May combine two claims.

A review of 28 CPTED studies on robbery found reductions from 30% to 84% in multiple-component CPTED studies and in all but one single-component study.

“A review of 28 CPTED studies on robbery (Casteel and Peek-Asa, 2000) found higher reductions (from 30% to 84%) in multiple component CPTED studies (16) and all but one of the single component studies (12)”

• cites Casteel and Peek-Asa, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Eck's 1997 review, only one location-based study was ranked 5, and few studies have been replicated at a strong level of scientific evidence.

“In Eck's 1997 review, only one location-based study (Eck and Wartell, 1996) was ranked 5 (that is employing the most robust research techniques using randomised controlled”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · plain

  “few studies have been replicated at a strong level of scientific evidence”

• cites Eck (1997, p7-6)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Eck and Wartell, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Social conditions may nurture fear, reduce the inclination to intervene, and result in withdrawal into the home, which becomes heavily fortified.

“Social conditions may nurture fear, reduce the inclination to intervene and result in the withdrawal of the individual into the home, which becomes heavily fortified.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The additional average cost of incorporating enhanced security features at the construction stage was estimated at £400.

“the additional average cost of incorporating enhanced security features at the construction stage has been estimated at £400”

• cites Armitage (2000)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Los Angeles, high-crime bus stops are associated with desolation and lack of surveillance, crowding, broken windows, and easy escapes.

“Loukaitou-Sideris' (1999) empirically based research analysed environmental features associated with high crime bus stops in Los Angeles and confirmed 'desolation and lack of surveillance', 'crowding', 'broken windows', and 'easy escapes' as significant factors.”

• cites Loukaitou-Sideris' (1999) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Security against crime is the most important factor to be considered when designing a home.

“a recent study has highlighted 'security against crime' as the most important factor to be considered when designing a home (Armitage and Everson, 2003).”

• cites Armitage and Everson, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

After CPTED interventions in Portland, Oregon, there was stabilization of neighbourhood quality of life, physical appearance, and social cohesion among the business community.

“a 'stabilisation' of the neighbourhood's quality of life, physical appearance and social cohesion among the business community”

• cites Schneider and Kitchen, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

'Offensible space' may exist where drug dealers and criminals use CPTED principles to create safe or offensible space from which to carry out criminal activities.

“Atlas (1991, p65) observes how 'offensible space' may exist where drug dealers and criminals utilise CPTED principles to create 'safe' or 'offensible' space within and from which they may carry out their criminal activities.”

• cites Atlas (1991, p65)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Residents in Harbordale perceive crime to be lower and quality of life improved because of the city's place-based crime prevention interventions.

“there is no doubt that residents perceive crime to be lower and the quality of life to be improved by virtue of the city's place-based crime prevention interventions in Harbordale”

• cites Schneider and Kitchen, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Environmental decline and increasing vacancy in a neighbourhood may breach the tipping point and result in out-migration of residents, social capital, and economic resources, setting in motion a vicious spiral of decline.

“Environmental decline and increasing rates of vacancy in a given neighbourhood may breach the 'tipping point' and result in the out-migration of residents, social capital and economic resources and set in motion a vicious spiral of decline.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hakim and Rengert claim there are five types of displacement, where crime prevention measures in one area can displace existing crime in terms of location, time, tactics, targets, and type of crime.

“Hakim and Rengert (1981) claim that there are five types, where the implementation of crime prevention measures in one area can 'displace' existing crime in terms of location, time, tactics, targets and type of crime.”

• cites Hakim and Rengert (1981)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Poyner concluded that many known crime prevention measures can be made to work, though broad analysis does not identify what makes an individual project successful.

“Poyner (1993, p21) concludes that there is optimism in the field of crime prevention but”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · boosted

  “such a broad analysis does not tell us what makes an individual crime prevention project successful, but it makes it quite clear that many of the measures already known in the crime prevention field can be made to work”

• cites Poyner (1993, p21)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CPTED clients are often unwilling to fund follow-up research evaluating CPTED interventions, and even when follow-up is an objective, client confidentiality can result in non-dissemination of findings.

“Draper (2000) observes that CPTED clients are often unwilling to fund follow-up research evaluating CPTED interventions and that even when this is an objective, client confidentiality can often result in the non-dissemination of findings.”

• cites Draper (2000)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Sherman et al., the effectiveness of the majority of place-based initiatives was categorized as 'unknown', and most failed to meet rigorous methodological and evaluative standards; this does not necessarily mean they did not work, only that it cannot be empirically proven that they worked.

“In Sherman et al (1997;2002) the effectiveness of the majority of the placebased initiatives was categorised as 'unknown' and most failed to meet the rigorous methodological and evaluative standards, this does not necessarily mean that they did not work, merely that it cannot be empirically 'proven' that they worked.”

• cites Sherman et al (1997;2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

It is less certain precisely how CPTED and its component parts work, where it works best, and how to systematically evaluate its effectiveness beyond reasonable doubt.

“What is less certain is precisely how CPTED and its component parts work, Through Environmental Design (CPTED): A Review and Modern Bibliography.Journal of Property Management.Volume 23,Issue 5, where it works best and how to systematically evaluate its effectiveness (or otherwise) beyond reasonable doubt.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Despite crime data supporting that place-based applications work, the physical, management, and community organisational interventions in these cases are woven together in complex ways that defy individual analysis.

“Schneider and Kitchen (2002, p158) comment that”

• Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain

  “despite the fact that the crime data support the contention that place-based applications work, the physical, management and community organisational interventions in these cases are woven together in complex ways that defy individual analysis”

• cites Schneider and Kitchen (2002, p158)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Crowe argues that CPTED is a self-evident concept used successfully for many centuries, and that research and assessment over the last 30 years have confirmed its utility.

“Crowe (2000, p220) argues”

• Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted

  “CPTED is a self-evident concept that has been used successfully for many centuries.Research and assessment over the last 30 years have confirmed the utility of what many people think is just good, common sense”

• cites Crowe (2000, p220)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There is confidence that the UK's SBD 'works' as a comprehensive CPTED programme, although critics and supporters are still unaware precisely why.

“There is confidence that as a comprehensive CPTED programme, the UK's SBD”

• Also stated in: § Research Supporting Comprehensive CPTED Strategies. · plain

  “works”

• Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain

  “although critics and supporters alike are still unaware as to precisely why”

• cites Topping and Pascoe, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cozens et al., 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Grabosky argued that science is beginning to inform crime control, highlighting the Campbell Crime and Justice website's extensive list of over 5,000 systematic studies.

“Grabosky (2003) has argued that science is beginning to inform crime control, highlighting the Campbell Crime and Justice website'sfoot_1 extensive list of systematic studies (over 5,000).”

• cites Grabosky (2003)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The insights presented in this review clearly indicate that CPTED can be effective in reducing recorded crime and the fear of crime.

“In summary, the insights presented in this review clearly indicate CPTED can be effective in reducing recorded crime and the fear of crime.”

May combine two claims.

Only a minority (24) of the Campbell Crime and Justice systematic studies are currently relevant to crime prevention, and most are oriented towards developmental crime prevention rather than place-based programmes.

“However, only a minority (24) are currently relevant to crime prevention and most are oriented towards developmental crime prevention, rather than place-based programmes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Eck reported that there were no place-based evaluations that did not work, and claimed that existing empirical uncertainty about what works, at which places, and against which crimes should not distract from the broader finding that opportunity blocking tactics at places can be productive.

“Eck (2002) reported that there were no place-based evaluations that did not work, claiming the existing empirical uncertainty about what works, at which places, and against which crimes”

• Also stated in: § Conclusions · plain

  “should not distract us from the broader finding that opportunity blocking tactics at places can be productive”

• cites Eck (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Many of these studies may not have met the rigorous evaluative standards recommended by Sherman et al., and therefore in scientific terms it cannot be unambiguously asserted that CPTED does not work.

“It is also suggested that many of these studies may not have met the rigorous evaluative standards recommended by Sherman et al., (1997;2002) and therefore, in scientific terms, it cannot be unambiguously asserted that CPTED does not work.”

• cites Sherman et al., (1997;2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.