Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise

“Additionally, referencing the relevant literature by Ekkekakis (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis, 2013), and a study on PANAS (Watson et al., 1988), one of the selected emotion rating scales, it became evident that the scale itself has certain limitations.”

“, > 75% VO2max) when the signal strength of physiological feedback is more potent (Ekkekakis, 2003; Tenenbaum, 2001).”

“Russell, 1980; Ekkekakis, 2003), was adopted here. This model includes two bipolar, orthogonal dimensions. Affective valence (pleasure–displeasure) was depicted on the horizontal axis and activation (low–high) on the vertical. By combining these dimensions, specific affective states (e.g., boredom or excitement) could…”

“Seminal work on the valenced response to physical activity led to the development of the dual-mode model which posits there is a dose–response pattern between physical activity intensity and affective valence (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“In fact, the notion of a dynamic competition between internal and external cues, together with a constant feeding of sensory and somatic input in and off from the individual’s focal awareness, is central for the dual-mode model of affective responses to exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003) and social-cognitive model of perceive…”

“Moreover, the study believes that subjective experience was an influencing factor of exercise commitment, placing it in the leading position of exercise commitment could improve the explanatory power of the cognitive decision model for exercise adherence behavior [45,51].”

“It has been suggested that the exercise intensity required to elicit a shift in dissociative to associative thoughts corresponds to a workload at the ventilatory threshold ( Ekkekakis, 2003 ).”

“It has been used in numerous PA studies (for a review see Ekkekakis, 2003) and is known to be sensitive to change in affective response during PA.”

“Affective responses to exercise are jointly influenced by cognitive factors, such as physical self-efficacy and interoceptive (e.g., muscular or respiratory) cues that reach the affective centers of the brain via sub-cortical pathways (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Importantly, the amount of pleasure one experiences during exercise might play a key role in later participation in physical activity [6,5,8].”

“[31] identified a positive association between the duration of physical activity and mental health, but did not specifically examine walking as a form exercise.”

“This scale has been used as a measure of psychological affect in a number of physical activity studies (Ekkekakis, 2003) and has been shown to be related to other measures of affective valence (Hall, Ekkekakis, & Petruzzello, 2002), as well as past and present physical activity participation (Hardy…”

“A characteristic form of alliesthesia for whole-body sensations during exercise has been reported [32-34].”

“This finding can be understood as a consequence of the unpleasant feelings which occur during participation in high-intensity exercise as a result of approaching and crossing over the ventilatory threshold (Acevedo et al., 1994; Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“According to the DualMode Theory, these differences in interoceptive cues may lead to differences in the affective response (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…who participate in more vigorous physical activity than others report more positive wellbeing, the acute within-person association between vigorous physical activity and positive affect during physical activity is likely uniformly negative regardless of how active someone is (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Exercise intensity is strongly associated with psychological and physiological arousal levels (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“al subjective experiences, which in turn, influence adherence to regular physical activity (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999; Van Landuyt, Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2000). In previous investigations, an inverse relation between exercise intensity and exercise adherence was observed in the general adult population (…”

“Through a cognitive appraisal process, even activities at a lower intensity can be beneficial for affective states (23).”

“…were found between SIT and MICT in the meta-analyses in the lowest score and post-exercise score after recovery, indicating that the maximal adverse impact on affective responses of “all-out” intensity in SIT may not be as strong as generally assumed (Ekkekakis, 2003; Hardcastle et al., 2014).”

“As some studies pointed out, the effect of music on fatigue perception would be reflected in the shift of runners’ attention to the fatigue state; that is, it would be shown first in the shift in perception of mental fatigue and then in the perception of physical fatigue [53,54].”

“In particular, Ekkekakis (2003) proposes that those who report an increase in pleasurable feelings during a moderate bout of exercise are more likely to adhere and maintain to this healthy behaviour than those who report negative feelings during this acute bout (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Empirical research supports tenets of DMT. Continuous exercise > VT typically leads to more unpleasant affective responses than continuous exercise at and < VT (Ekkekakis et al., 2005b; Kilpatrick, Kraemer, Bartholomew, Acevedo, & Jarreau, 2007).”

“, in-task assessments of self-efficacy, appraisals of the meaning of exercise, goals, attributions, and considerations of the social context of exercise) have been found to be most strongly related to affective responses at low to moderate exercise intensities when physiological responses are less dramatic (Ekkekakis,…”

“Previous laboratory-based work has highlighted that high-intensity exercise can result in unpleasant affective responses (Ekkekakis, 2003), which may in turn affect future exercise behaviour (Rhodes and Kates, 2015).”

“So far, theoretical and model-like explanations are based on affective and cognitive approaches [31–33].”

“However, in the past two decades, there has been a gradual increase in attention to affective determinants of health behaviors in general (Williams, Rhodes, & Conner, 2018) and PA adherence in particular (Baldwin, Baldwin, Loehr, Kangas, & Frierson, 2013; Conner, Rhodes, Morris, McEachan, & Lawton, 2011; Ekkekakis, 20…”

“These findings are consistent with the ‘‘dual-mode’’ model [17,18,31], which suggests that exercises performed below the VT generate homogeneous responses of pleasure with a low-moderate”

“A broader conceptual framework that encompasses exercise intensity-dependent patterns of interindividual variability in affective response is the dual-mode theory (DMT; Ekkekakis, 2003, 2005).”

“The Dual-Mode Model (Ekkekakis, 2003) posited that low-intensity exercise typically leads to positive affective responses (i.e., increased pleasure), while heavy exercise intensities (between Tvent and Respiratory compensation point [RCP]) elicit variable affective responses, and severe exercise intensities (above RCP…”

“Although space limitations do not allow for a detailed discussion (cf. Ekkekakis, 2003, 2013), we note that the FS and FAS measures constitute the valence and arousal dimensions (respectively) of the circumplex model of core affect (Russell & Feldman Barrett, 1999) while the PAAS measures map on to…”

“According to the dual-mode theory, exercise intensity above the anaerobic threshold or the second VT produces uniformly unpleasant responses due to a predominance of interoceptive signals (muscular fatigue, ventilation, blood lactate) over cognitive processes (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Moreover, Jones, Karageorghis and Ekkekakis (2014) examined the effect of two methods of disassociation attentional strategies: video and music (disassociation strategies) on psychological responses at two different intensities (10% below and 5% above Ventilatory Threshold or VT) during an exercise on a stationary cyc…”

“This suggests that exercise intensity might be a decisive factor affecting how good or bad individuals feel during exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2005).”

“Ekkekakis (17) proposed that the time it takes for a significant increase in affect to occur once exercise ceases may take longer following more intense exercise (such as HIIT), while the influence of the interoceptive cues dissipates, so our reported values could be similar or slightly less positive to those taken du…”

“…a significant predictor of future exercise behavior (for review, see Rhodes and Kates, 2015); conversely, experiencing discomfort, unpleasant affect, or pain during exercise is likely to contribute to a discontinuation of engagement in physical activity (Ekkekakis, 2003; Brand and Ekkekakis, 2017).”

“The FS is an 11-point, single-item, bipolar rating scale commonly used for the assessment of affective valence associated with physical activity (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006; Lind, Ekkekakis, & Vazou, 2008; Lind, Joens-Matre, & Ekkekakis, 2005; Rejeski, Best, Griffith, & Kenney, 1987;…”

“This exercise intensity has been found to be very close to the second ventilatory threshold (e.g. Laplaud, Guinot, Favre-Juvin, & Flore, 2006), which stands at the upper boundary of the domain of heavyintensity exercise according to Ekkekakis (2003).”

“Previous research has revealed how moderate-intensity exercise was conducive to psychological wellbeing; meanwhile, high-intensity exercise could lead to feelings of displeasure (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“The finding also partly alleviates concerns expressed in the literature (Biddle and Batterham, 2015) which suggest performing HIIT will evoke feelings of displeasure (Ekkekakis, 2003) and could negatively impact on future exercise behaviour (Rhodes and Kates, 2015).”

“undertook research on this basis and found evidence of individual variability and dose-response patterns in the relationship between exercise and affective responses, and proposed a new theoretical framework called the dual-mode model [20].”

“It has been widely used to measure affective valence in physical activity studies (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“8 Unterschiede in affektiven Reaktionen werden durch zwei prinzipielle Wirkpfade erklärt 9 die in Abhängigkeit der Intensität zu sehen sind (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…of exercise exceeds an individuals’ ventilatory threshold (when ventilation starts to increase at a faster rate than maximum oxygen intake; (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2005; Ekkekakis et al., 2005), which if the resulting somatic sensations are apprised or interpreted as harmful or intolerable…”

“This difference in affective response has been explained (among others) by the different interoceptive sensations created by these intensities [21].”

“Nevertheless, in non-clinical samples, a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise has been shown to reduce transiently depressive symptoms and improve moods more consistently than intense exercise (Yeung, 1996; Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…using vigorous-intensity exercise because differences in affective experiences between physically underactive and active individuals are larger during vigorous-intensity than lower-intensity exercise or very intense exercise (Bixby & Lochbaum, 2006; Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2011).”

“The emotional experience of adolescents’ exercise is one of the most important factors influencing individual exercise adherence 29 .”

“According to the hedonic theory of motivation (Ekkekakis, 2003), individuals who perceive exercise as pleasant are more likely to become and remain active for a long-term period.”

“Opponents argue that the general community largely view HIIT as a likely unpleasant activity to undertake (i.e. high levels of negative affect during exercise) and therefore not a sustainable wide-scale exercise training option, a viewpoint drawn from Dual Mode Theory (Ekkekakis, 2003) which argues that exercise inten…”

“, 2006; Rose & Parfitt, 2007, 2008; Williams, 2008), they should choose an exercise intensity which elicits physiological responses similar to those found below or near to ventilatory threshold (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis, et al., 2005), regardless of age.”

“In fact, several other studies have also demonstrated negative affective responses during or immediately after submaximal bouts of exercise (see Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999, for a review). It should be emphasized that these results have come from studies of young, healthy, and mostly physically active participants.…”

“The Dual-Mode Theory [14] proposes that the relative intensity of exercise is the most important parameter in making a training session pleasant (when the intensity is lower than the respiratory threshold) or unpleasant (when the intensity is greater than the respiratory threshold).”

“A variability of responses, with some individuals reporting changes towards pleasure and some reporting changes towards displeasure, is expected when the intensity of physical activity approximates the heavy domain ( Ekkekakis, 2003 ; Ekkekakis, et al ., 2005 ; Ekkekakis & Lind, 2006 ).”

“As a lifter accumulates fatigue from a working set and homeostasis is threatened, the body may produce feelings of displeasure to protect the body and encourage the cessation of exercise (9).”

“…these task-based differences for LA affect may not be entirely surprising given evidence that interoceptive cues arising from the physiological stimuli of an exercise task can increase levels of activation and alter affective valence (Bryan, Hutchison, Seals, & Allen, 2007; Ekkekakis 2003).”

“Indeed, the positive impact of exercise on mood, affect, cognition, and brain activity is well-established (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2011), although the magnitude of the effect is highly dependent on exercise type/intensity as well as the participants’ characteristics (e.g., age, physical…”

“A measure of specific intrinsic positive or negative emotions, also termed affective valence, the feeling scale, has often been applied when prescribing exercise; and it has been suggested that a positive affective response on this scale may enhance future exercise behaviors (Ekkekakis, 2003; HamlynWilliams et al., 20…”

“However, researchers have shown that acute exercise can lead to post-exercise enhanced valence and increased activation (Ekkekakis, 2003), the reverse of which is evident in the participants who abstained from exercise in this study and who experienced decreased valence and decreased energetic arousal over the 4-day p…”