Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise

“While acute studies suggest that more positive feelings are elicited by light and moderate intensity physical activity (Ekkekakis, 2003), the evidence is still in need of development for chronic studies.”

“self-efficacy) at low intensities.([128]) The correlations with peripheral physiological parameters are also near zero.”

“The FS has been used as a measure of affective valence in a number of physical activity studies (for a review see Ekkekakis, 2003) and has been shown to be related to other measures of affective valence (Hall et al., 2002), as well as present and past physical activity participation (Hardy &…”

“We believe that negative core affective valence during exercise reflects such hardship (Ekkekakis, 2003), especially for sedentary, low-active, or obese individuals (e. g., Ekkekakis, Vazou, Bixby, & Georgiadis, 2016).”

“The inhibitory capacity of music may be reduced at higher physical activity intensities when the signal strength of physiological feedback is more potent (Ekkekakis, 2003; Tenenbaum, 2001); a phenomenon that will be subject to examination via moderator analyses in the present study.”

“The hypotheses examined in the present study were derived from a recently developed conceptual framework named the dual-mode theory (for a detailed analysis of theoretical postulates, see [44–47]).”

“In addition to formulating a conceptual and methodological approach to affect assessment, Ekkekakis and colleagues (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2005; Ekkekakis & Acevedo, 2006; Ekkekakis et al., 2005) have posited the dual-mode model for understanding affective response to exercise of different intensities.”

“In the following sections, we make links between the adaptational significance of different levels of physical activity intensity and the patterns of affective responses that accompany the activity.”

“The improvements to mood across all environments and of cognitive function in the natural environments may reflect the motivational properties of physical activity (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“The dualmode model would support such post-exercise feelings, but equally would predict feelings of considerable displeasure during exercise [36].”

“It is clear that lack of physical activity could contribute to health problems, but research has also demonstrated the beneficial effects of physical activity on mental health.(45,46) Taken together, these findings point to the potential influence of SES on health and mental health, potentially by affecting neighborho…”

“…experience is one of the best predictors of future adherence (Rejeski, 1994), recent findings on the impact of intensity and exercise mode on affect (Arent et al., 2005; Ekkekakis, 2003) can be used to guide prescription that may maximize both psychological benefit and likelihood of adherence.”

“The greater decrease in positive affect seen during and after HIT as compared to CMI is likely due to the greater intensity at which individuals are working, as predicted by the exercise intensity – affect relationship [17].”

“…ventilatory threshold), individuals’ affective responses to exercise (i.e., enjoyment) are more strongly influenced by interoceptive/physiological cues (e.g., muscular and respiratory) than by psychological ones (e.g., goals) which play a much greater role at lower intensities (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“For example, despite profuse sweating and the redistribution of blood, an exercising individual is prepared and expectant of being uncomfortable (Parsons, 2002; Cabanac, 2006), while sensations of pleasure, productivity, and achievement may also be associated with physical and thermal strain (Havenith et al., 2002; Ek…”

“In addition, fitness (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999) and exercise experience (Hsiao & Thayer, 1998) appear to interact with higher intensity exercise such that greater fitness and experience increase the magnitude and duration of post-exercise PAA compared to less fit participants.”

“A third conceptual formulation that includes aspects testable through NIRS is the dual-mode theory (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Acevedo, 2006; Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005a).”

“In his dual-mode hypothesis of the determinants of the affective response to exercise, Ekkekakis (2003) explicitly states that cognitive appraisals such as self-efficacy influence affective response, especially at moderate intensity.”

“According to Dual Mode Theory (Ekkekakis, 2003), shifts in affective valence in response to PA are determined by two orthogonal factors: cognitive parameters (e.g., self-efficacy, attitudes, and body image) and interoceptive cues (e.g., pain, temperature, and cortical oxygenation).”

“These findings are consistent with the “duel-mode model” of exercise-induced affective responses ( Ekkekakis, 2003 ).”

“The lack of a significant relationship between social physique anxiety and pleasure–displeasure at low and maximal exercise intensities is consistent with the postulates of the dual-mode theory (36).”

“Previous experimental studies on the association between exercise and affect have shown considerable individual variability in affect during exercise on the one hand, but a uniformly positive affective response immediately following exercise on the other (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…1989), Gillman and Bryan (2016) used psychological reversal theory (Svebak and Murgatroyd, 1985), Bird et al. (2019) used the dual-mode theory of affect (Ekkekakis, 2003), and both Annesi and Mazas (1997) and Mestre et al. (2011b) used the theory of attentional focus (Wininger and Gieske, 2010).”

“Ekkekakis’ (2003) dual-mode theory suggests that exercise affects mood and depressive symptoms jointly by top-down cognitive factors (e.g., exercise self-efficacy) and bottom-up interoceptive afferents (e.g., muscular and respiratory cues).”

“Moderate or vigorous intensity physical activity can increase post-exercise positive affect (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Such physiological stress subsequently leads to stimulation of the affective centres of the brain (e.g., the amygdala), eliciting a negative affective response (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“This will likely require a consideration of genetic, physiological, and cognitive factors (Bryan et al., 2007; Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“’’ Furthermore, it is believed that exercising at intensities beyond the ventilatory threshold (VT) leads to increased physiological stress and more negative affect (12,13)—changes that can be explained by the dual-mode theory of Ekkekakis (12).”

“…distraction has been shown to increase enjoyment and reduce boredom (e.g. Pennebaker & Lightner, 1980), to reduce arousal or frustration (e.g. Aspinall, Mavros, Coyne, & Roe, 2013), and to elevate positive moods (e.g. Callen, 1983; Ekkekakis, 2003, 2009; Goode & Roth, 1993; Masters, 1992).”

“, physiological factors such as ventilation), and the interaction of these factors is influenced by the exercise intensity [10].”

“This is partially consistent with the “dual-mode”, which states that there is a negative relationship between exercise intensity and feelings of pleasure, and that exercise intensities above the ventilatory threshold (close to respiratory compensation point) generate homogenous feelings of displeasure [32,33].”

“Ekkekakis et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 14 (2013) 751e758 752”

“The identified relationship between intensity and positive affect is consistent with previous research that found immediate gains in positive affect following objectively measured exercise intensity [69].”

“In addition, because we found a generally stronger relationship between light exercise and depression than between strenuous exercise and depression, and because the dual-mode theory (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2005) assumes moderate-intensity exercise to be a more robust predictor of a positive emotional stat…”

“Ekkekakis [21] addressed this phenomenon in his dual-mode theory.”

“In accordance with the DMT (Ekkekakis, 2003), there is a quadratic decline in affective valence over time when exercising above VT but the present design did not account for such a time-dependent decline and thus minimized the magnitude of the affective decline by taking an average of the values at…”

“Physiological variables, such as ventilation, oxygen uptake, lactate concentration, and core temperature, account for most of the reliable variance in reports of affective valence within the domain of severe intensity (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“According to Ekkekakis’ (2003) dual-model theory of response to exercise, people generally find exercise more pleasurable when it is done below the ventilatory threshold (i.”

“decline when the exercise intensity exceeds VT (Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello, 2011). 9 Presumably, this is indicative of the rising influence of interoceptive cues. Accordingly, 10 Ekkekakis (2003) reported negative correlations of increasing magnitude between ratings of 11 pleasure-displeasure and physiological…”

“There is no scientific consensus on why exercise has a ‘feel better’ effect, but we do know that moderate-intensity exercise is experienced as the most pleasurable by the majority of people, and is associated with stronger exercise motivation and more time spent exercising (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2011).”

“of homeostasis enters consciousness (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“The Dual-Mode Theory (DMT; Ekkekakis, 2003 , 2005 ) is a new theoretical formulation that is intended to serve as a hypothesis-generating framework for understanding the patterns and underlying mechanisms of affective responses to exercise.”

“Researchers have pointed to the physiological phenomenon of the ventilatory threshold (VT) as best representing this critical transition point during aerobic-type tasks (Ekkekakis, 2003; Karageorghis & Priest, 2012a).”

“intensity as predicted by the relation between exercise intensity and affect (10,12,26).”

“…my quadriceps) by both top-down and bottom-up mechanisms (i.e., I can explicitly direct my cognition away from pain at sub-maximal thresholds, but as the exertion becomes more intense, bottom-up sensations play a larger role in determining the focus of attention; Tenenbaum, 2001; Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“S peculation exists that a positive affective response experienced during exercise will lead to greater enjoyment of the exercise session, promote a positive memory of the exercise experience, and may ultimately play a significant role in predicting exercise adherence (7,9,22, 23,32,33,40,42).”

“This supports the contention by Ekkekakis and Petruzzello (2000) that, because exercise is a “multifaceted stimulus,” it has the ability to “induce affective responses emerging from any level of affective processing, from basic affect to specific emotions” (p.”

“The conscious perception of exertion and fatigue is theorized to be derived from bottom-up afferent input from the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, and musculoskeletal systems, as well as the affective appraisal of exercise (12).”

“Considering the preliminary support that intensity may influence psychological responses, it is worthwhile to examine the postexercise responses of affect, which reflect intrapersonal valenced responses, such as positive or negative (12), and anxiety following an acute bout of resistance training that varies in intens…”

“From an evolutionary perspective, the reduced pleasure has an adaptive function to encourage the individual to stop prior to the depletion of anaerobic resources (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…control of the sinoatrial node during whole-body modes of exercise performed at light-to-moderate intensities (i.e., below ventilatory threshold; Ekkekakis, 2003), because mechanoreceptors strongly redirect the outflow of blood pumped by the heart to the working muscles (De Meersman, Zion,…”

“Ekkekakis P represents research related to affective responses to exercise (e.g., Ekkekakis, 2003) and alternative perspectives on dose-response models (Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005).”

“…there now appears to be evidence that even low-dose bodily movement might be associated with improvements in affect (e.g., Berger & Motl, 2000; Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis, Backhouse, Gray, & Lind, 2008; Ekkekakis, Hall, van Landuyt, & Petruzzello, 2000; Reed & Buck, 2009; Reed & Ones, 2006;…”

“These findings can be explained by a dual-mode conceptual model (Ekkekakis, 2003), indicating that the affective response to exercise is influenced by cognitive factors such as physical self-efficacy and by interoceptive cues such as respiration, reaching the affective centres of the brain via…”

“…that fitness translates into reduced depression symptoms, neglecting the acute affective and motivational benefits of physical activity (e.g., Bartholomew, Morrison, & Ciccolo, 2005; Bodin & Martinsen, 2004; Ekkekakis, 2003; Rebar, Faulkner, & Stanton, 2015; Reed & Ones, 2006; Williams, 2008).”

“In line with the dual-mode model [16], [17], and evidence of cognitive control and lateralized processes, a reduced functional capacity or deregulation may occur in different regions of the PFC during exercise at intensities of exercise above VT, which may explain the regulation of affective responses during exercise.”

“However, research investigating affective responses experienced during the course of exercise shows significant individual variability in affective change (e.g. Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Given that exercise has been found to have a positive influence on affect in humans ( Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis and Petruzzello, 2000; Ekkekakis et al. 2000; Morgan, 1997; Taylor, 2000), it is reasonable to propose thatprobablyduetoitsaffectiveinfluences,itmightprovide effective competition against smoking urges in h…”

“Ekkekakis and Petruzzello (2002) proposed that both valence (pleasant– unpleasant) and activation (activated–deactivated) should be considered to fully characterize the feel-good response to physical activity.”

“…late, but not the early, stages of recovery from strenuous exercise probably indicates that, consistent with the postulates of the dual-mode theory (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2005b), affect earlier on is dominated by the influence of interoceptive cues whereas later it becomes…”

“However, the a-process might include interoceptive signals which rise as the intensity increases whereas the b-process is charged with cognitive signals which diminish with growing intensity in favor of the first process, which is similar to the dual mode concept (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2009).”

“Rather, the FS is a bipolar dimension (good–bad), whereas the four PAAS constructs represent affective information accounting for both valence (positive or negative) and arousal (activated or deactivated) dimensions of affect (cf., Ekkekakis, 2003, 2013).”

“However, this neglects the potential importance of the increase in interindividual variation in affective responding at intensities just above the VT, when the supply of energy through oxygen must be supplemented by anaerobic metabolism and the physiological steady-state is challenged (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“There is an almost universally positive affective response to light activity, while high-intensity activity typically evokes feelings of displeasure (Ekkekakis 2003; Ekkekakis et al. 2005; Parfitt and Hughes 2009).”

“The Feeling Scale has been used to measure incidental affect in numerous prior studies of PA (for a review see Ekkekakis, 2003) and has been shown to be related to other self-report measures of incidental affect (Hall, Ekkekakis, & Petruzzello, 2002; Hardy & Rejeski, 1989).”