Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise

“In addition, not only the experienced emotions may infl uence speed and other movement characteristics, but also physical activity itself may positively infl uence the emotional state, as supported by various other fi ndings (e.g., Ekkekakis, 2003; Raedeke, 2007).”

“Ekkekakis (9) suggests that this marked interindividual difference is a result of cognitive processes being the over-riding factor in determining affective responses at this intensity.”

“The workload on the ergometer was fixed at this level for the subsequent cycle trials to standardize the impact of exercise intensity on participants’ psychological responses (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…the majority of inactive overweight/obese population is unlikely to maintain continuous aerobic exercise at vigorous intensity for a prolonged time (Ekkekakis, 2003), high-intensity interval exercise modalities with either long (several minutes) or short (several seconds) work durations have been…”

“…has been found to be related to more positive affect and higher satisfaction with life (Arent et al., 2000; Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello, 2011; Ekkekakis, 2003; Netz, Wu, Becker, & Tenenbaum, 2005; Penedo & Dahn, 2005; Rejeski & Mihalko, 2001); however, the magnitude of the effects vary…”

“, 2007) can be explained by the recently proposed dualmode model (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005; Ekkekakis & Acevedo, 2006), which suggests that at exercise intensities around the VT, affective valence responses are likely to be dominated by the individual’s cognitive appraisal of the task at h…”

“However, as exercise intensity increases beyond the level of comfort (physiological homeostasis), physiological cues dominate and affective responses become more negative (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2017).”

“According to the dual-mode theory (DMT) of affective responses to exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2009a), at exercise intensities exceeding the CP, all or nearly all individuals are expected to report declines in pleasure.”

“In other words, if exercise reduces cravings, do changes in energy, vigor, and tension mediate these effects? In contrast, exercise-related affective responses have recently been examined in the circumplex (Russell, 1980) model of affect (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2000, 2002).”

“According to the dual-mode theory, exercise intensity above the anaerobic threshold or the second ventilatory threshold (VT) produces uniformly unpleasant responses due to a predominance of interoceptive signals (muscular fatigue, ventilation, and blood lactate) relative to cognitive processes (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985), social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1998), and transtheoretical model of health behavior change (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997), with the cognitive construct of self-efficacy being the most widely studied (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“The FS has been used as a measure of affective valence in a number of physical activity studies (for a review, see Ekkekakis, 2003), has been shown to be related to other measures of affective valence (Hall, Ekkekakis, & Petruzzello, 2002), and is distinct from ratings of perceived exertion (Hardy…”

“Furthermore, previous investigations have demonstrated that allowing individuals to self-regulate their exercise intensity to a preferred intensity is one method that leads to greater enjoyment of the exercise session, promotes a positive memory of the exercise experience, and may ultimately play a significant role in…”

“This effect would tend to be nullified toward the latter stages of a run-to-exhaustion because the intensity of the fatigue symptoms, particularly the sharp rise in respiration rate and blood lactate, diverts attention away from the music (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Moreover, a decrease in the PFC oxyhemoglobin concentration weakens the top-down prefrontal regulation of emotion, and increased subcortical reinforcement of endoreceptive information afferents triggers negative emotional responses (Ekkekakis 2003; Rooks et al. 2010; Tempest and Parfitt 2017).”

“There are also strong intraindividual variations in affective responses to exercise at levels below highly vigorous [33].”

“Further, the researchers used heart rate data to determine the resistance applied to the cycle ergometer, as opposed to defining the exercise intensity in accord with fixed metabolic indicators, such as VT (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Affective valence was also more positive during EC, which may 347 reflect the slower running speed and decreased blood lactate (14).”

“Such results support the dual-mode theory (Ekkekakis, 2003), which posits that at low to moderate intensities, cognitive factors such as exercise self-efficacy and appraisals of goals determine affective responses, which are generally positive.”

“…before exercise, at min 1, 3, and 5 during the 5-min warm-up, and every 2min during the 10-min exercise at the VT. Based on dual-mode theory (Ekkekakis, 2003, 2013), affective valence responses to exercise at the VT were expected to exhibit interindividual variability, presumably enhancing…”

“However, it is critical to choose the right intensity because studies have shown that more intense forms of exercise may lead to displeasure, although such feelings can subside with time after exercise (33).”

“According to a theoretical framework (the dual-mode model: Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Acevedo, 2006), at intensities below the ventilatory threshold (VT; i.e., the point of transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism), individuals are able to maintain PFC activation to override the negative…”

“Like Diener et al. [21] beforehand, Nesselroade ([37], p. 189) has pointed out that the extent of intraindividual variability can, in 2 For example, Rejeski, Brawley, and Schumaker [28] used HRQOL as the outcome variable in their secondary analysis, whereas Ekkekakis and Backhouse [9] analyzed HRQOL as just one of sev…”

“The concept of “affective rebound” (Ekkekakis et al., 2008) Given the typical affective responses during exercise, as depicted in the dual-mode model (Ekkekakis, 2003), the high-intensity exercise bout itself will not typically result in positive affective responses but the rest periods in-between…”

“This variability in response has been explained by the dual-mode model (Acevedo and Ekkekakis 2006; Ekkekakis 2003), which proposes that affective responses during exercise are intensity dependent, and due to the interplay between cognitive processes (e.”

“This theory suggests that the affective response to exercise results from the interplay of two systems: one that is cognitive in nature, involving appraisals, motivations, and goals relevant to activity, versus a second system that is physiological in nature, resulting from interoceptive cues experienced as the body r…”

“, mindfulness) would not be as effective (10, 22).”

“Affective states subsume the whole range of states based on core affect (Scherer, 1984; Ekkekakis, 2003), which is defined as “the most elementary consciously accessible affective feelings (and their neurophysiological counterparts) that need not be directed at anything” (Russell and Barrett, 1999,…”

“In contrast to traditional health behavior theories that mainly focused on the role of cognitive aspects as physical activity drivers, these recent theories suggest within-subject variance of human well-being in everyday life to be of critical importance for physical activity engagement [9–11].”

“Although scientists have speculated that exercise influences affect via multiple neurological pathways, the mechanisms by which exercise changes affect are, unfortunately, not well understood (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“However, the experience of stress during high levels of physiological arousal as something positive is also well documented in studies on sensation-seeking behavior, sport, and sexuality (Ekkekakis, 2003; Sinclair et al., 1994).”

“Examples of core affect in the literature include pleasure and displeasure, tension and relaxation, energy and tiredness (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Literature suggests that maintaining exercise intensity below the point of ventilation threshold can elicit a greater sense of pleasure, encouraging sustained exercise engagement [153].”

“Such a state, which is postulated to elicit negative affect, is adaptive in that the individual would seek to avoid situations in which such metabolic strain is present, thereby avoiding potential harm to the organism (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Given that exercising at a severe intensity causes a sharp decline in affective valence and induces high levels of psychomotor arousal (18), environmental manipulations that assuage these effects (e.”

“the threshold at which intensities change from being perceived as “heavy” to “unsustainable” (Neder and Stein 2006), emotional responses are generally negative and interoceptive cues play the greatest role (Ekkekakis 2003; Ekkekakis and Petruzzello 1999).”

“The linear increase in positive affect over the course of the yoga session was in concordance with previous research utilizing Dual-Mode Theory (Ekkekakis et al., 2011), which suggests exercise below lactate/sub-ventilatory thresholds is generally reported as pleasant both during the actual exercise session and upon c…”

“…investigate in relation with depression because depression may, to some extent, increase at the most vigorous intensity level (Lindwall, Rennemark, Halling, Berglund, & Hassmen, 2007 ), when the capacity of the metabolic system is exceeded and lactate is accumulated in the body (Ekkekakis, 2003 ).”

“According to the theory, neither factor is likely to have complete control over affective responses; rather, the balance of control is hypothesized to shift as a function of exercise intensity (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“In contrast complex and/or intense physical activities can have negative acute effects on an individual’s overall emotional state, depending on task modality, intensity and purpose (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“This is because during high-intensity exercise the sensation of discomfort is more noticeable [59].”

“The “dual-mode-theory” (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2005, 2011) postulates that exercise intensities below the ventilation threshold (VT)/lactate threshold (LT) will mainly induce positive affect, while intensities above the VT/LT will mainly induce reduced pleasure.”

“There is evidence for possible differential effects of exercise intensity on the mood changes that are associated with acute bouts of exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003; Reed & Ones, 2006).”

“For example, research has revealed that there is considerable heterogeneity in the affect individuals experience when engaging in physical activity at their ventilatory thresholds (i.e., heavy intensity exercise; Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“This result could be explained by the Dual-Mode Theory, which proposes that exercise intensity mediates the influence of cognitive and interoceptive cues on affective responses (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“…seek out an activity that they find pleasurable and avoid activities that bring them displeasure, suggests that this post-class positive affect may contribute to increased participation in this often vigorous-intensity exercise modality (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello, 2011).”

“, cardio-respiratory fitness) associated with exercise are more substantial when higher-intensity exercise is performed (Riddoch & O’Donovan, 2006), albeit that this is subject to greater inter-individual variability in affect (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“These perturbations lead to a dramatic decline in pleasure (Cabanac, 2006; Ekkekakis, 2003), which could in-turn predict long-term exercise adherence (Williams et al.”

“The dual-mode model (DMM; Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Acevedo, 2006) can account for the cerebral hemodynamic changes in the frontal cortex and the influence upon affective responses at these different intensities of exercise.”

“HR (beatsImin) 158 (12) 161 (12) 163 (11) 167 (11) 162 (12) 153 (10) 152 (11) 152 (13) 161 (12) 154 (12) RER 1.”

“009 feelings of considerable discomfort that would prevent long-term adherence.(35) Therefore, the aim of the present study was to ascertain the effectiveness of 6-month, field-based HIIT intervention in adolescents with asthma compared with their healthy peers.”

“…support for the idea that brain structures responsible for affective responses interpret the afferent feedback from group III and IV fiber during exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis and Acevedo, 2006) and that this basic construct of pleasure has an important role to promote adherence to exercise.”

“Among them, subjective exercise experience is one of the important influencing factors [16].”

“Van Landuyt, Ekkekakis, Hall, and Petruzzello (2000) required participants to work at 60% estimated VO2 max for 30 min: 44% reported an improvement in affective valence, while 41% reported a decline”

“exercise, regardless of intensity (Ekkekakis, 2003), and within 1 min following severe124 intensity exercise (Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005b).”

“Extensive research has supported the positive effect of exercise on psychological responses and cognitive function (Ekkekakis, 2003; Hillman et al., 2008; Erickson et al., 2015).”

“…13 | Article 929380 shown in various studies, exercising with moderate intensity is perceived as more pleasurable than high intensity exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2004, 2011), suggesting that matching skills to training demands promote positive affect and desirable outcome…”

“The opposite occurs during a steady-state exercise, where cortical structures are activated and several factors will infl uence the aff ective responses, e.g., self-effi cacy and exercise goals ( Ekkekakis, 2003 ).”

“Ekkekakis (2003) described a model where both cognitive and physiological processes influence mood responses during exercise.”

“…low) dimensions (Russell, 1980), has received increasing attention as a key factor eliciting motivation for PA (Ekkekakis and Petruzzello, 1999; Ekkekakis, 2003, 2017; Williams, 2008; Rhodes et al., 2009; Rhodes and Kates, 2015; Lee et al., 2016; Murphy and Eaves, 2016; Williams and Bohlen,…”

“Ekkekakis’ (2003) dual-mode theory of physiological exertion suggests an individual’s ability to seek and form negative cognitive appraisals becomes markedly reduced during the performance of vigorous intensity physical activity.”

“In case of PA of vigorous intensity, an individual may experience a trend towards experiencing negative affect during vigorous PA, followed by experiencing positive affect at postexercise recovery (Ekkekakis, 2003).”

“Positive affect, a key component of psychological well-being, has been associated with exercise [4,5].”

“These affective responses have been conceptualized as general psychological states of an individual, including but not limited to feelings, core affect, emotions and mood, within a given situation or to a given stimulus (Ekkekakis, 2003).”