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Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise
Abstract
The affective changes associated with acute exercise have been studied extensively in exercise and health psychology, but not in affective psychology. This paper presents a summary of the relevant findings and a tentative theoretical model. According to this model, affective responses to exercise are jointly influenced by cognitive factors, such as physical self-efficacy, and interoceptive (e.g., muscular or respiratory) cues that reach the affective centres of the brain via subcortical routes. Furthermore, the balance between these two determinants is hypothesised to shift as a function of exercise intensity, with cognitive factors being dominant at low intensities and interoceptive cues gaining salience as intensity approaches the individual's functional limits and the maintenance of a physiological steady-state becomes impossible.
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“This theory postulates that the exercise intensity (especially the lactate and ventilatory threshold) is the mediator of affective responses.”
From Continuous and high-intensity interval training: Which promotes higher pleasure? (2013) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“According to the Dual-Mode Theory, an exercise session can have effects on cognitive factors (e.g., psychological factors such as physical self-efficacy) and interoceptive factors (e.g., physiological factors such as ventilation), and the interaction of these factors is influenced by the exercise intensity [10].”
From Continuous and high-intensity interval training: Which promotes higher pleasure? (2013) · cites this paper as [10]
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“In the context of people’s most recent bout of exercise, affective response to the experience of the behaviour refers to whether exercise behaviour itself felt good or bad (Ekkekakis, 2003) whereas self-evaluation refers broadly to how good or bad did following through on one’s intention (i.”
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Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation: Considerations for Cognitive Performance in Athletes
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Tomasso, L. P., Spengler, J. D., Catalano, P. J., Chen, J. T., & Laurent, J. G. C. (2023) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2023.128005 · Cited by 10
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Examining the effect of challenge and threat states on endurance exercise capabilities
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Physical Therapy Effectiveness
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“At moderate intensities (below Ventilatory Threshold [VT]), affective responses are positive with low interindividual variance (Ekkekakis 2003).”
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“Among these physiological adjustments, ventilation, oxygen uptake, lactate concentration and core temperature have been proposed to be major contributors to the affective experience accompanying high-intensity exercise (Ekkekakis, 2003).”
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Brain activity during self-paced vs. fixed protocols in graded exercise testing
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“2017; Ekkekakis 2003; Robertson and Marino 2016a, b).”
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The Assessment of Affective Responses within Exercise Prescription: A Narrative Review
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“Among these new breakthroughs was the doseresponse pattern between exercise intensity and affective valence (pleasuredispleasure) [17] henceforth referred to using the generic term, affective responses [18, 19].”
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“Ekkekakis (2003) suggested that exercise is related to affect via both, cognitive factors (e.g. physical self-efficacy) and interoceptive (e.g. muscular or respiratory) cues.”
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“Although aerobic PE above the ventilatory threshold may be perceived as threatening and generate negative affective states (Ekkekakis, 2003), exercise regimens involving intervals of highintensity aerobic PE elicit greater pleasure than continuous, moderate aerobic PE (Bartlett et al.”
Backgroundde Queirós, V. S., Rolnick, N. D., Sabag, A., Wilde, P., Peçanha, T., Aniceto, R. R., Rocha, R. F. C., Delgado, D. Z., Cabral, B. G. D. A. T., & Dantas, P. M. S. (2024) · Journal of Sports Science and Medicine · doi:10.52082/jssm.2024.114 · Cited by 8
“According to the Dual Mode Theory, affective valence during physical exercise is modulated by two factors: (i) cognitive parameters (e.g., self-efficacy and attitudes) and (ii) interoceptive signals (e.g., pain, temperature and cortical oxygenation) (Ekkekakis, 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-selected vs. prescribed aerobic exercise intensity: impacts on pleasure in women with obesity
Silva, C., Santana, W. D. J., Almeida, G., Verame, A. D. S., Doro, A. R., Barbosa, E., Lima, L., Dias, H. M., Zanetti, M. C., & Júnior, A. J. F. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1533785 · Cited by 8
“The hedonic theory (Ekkekakis, 2003; Kahneman, 1999) suggests that more pleasurable behaviors are more likely to be repeated.”
InfluentialBravo-Aparicio, J., Trillo-Charlín, I., Avendaño‐Coy, J., & Beltrán-Alacreu, H. (2025) · JMIR Aging · doi:10.2196/72559 · Cited by 9
“Additionally, only 2 studies [34,36] reported on the exercise intensity—a factor known to influence enjoyment and satisfaction through established models [21,45,46].”
Danso, A., Kekäläinen, T., Koehler, F., Knittle, K. P., Nijhuis, P., Burunat, I., Neto, P., Mavrolampados, A., Randall, W. M., Hansen, N. C., et al. (2025) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/70372 · Cited by 9
“ART emphasizes the importance of momentary affective responses—such as pleasure or displeasure—in shaping future exercise behaviors [13,14].”
Can caffeine improve your performance? Psychophysiological effects — A systematic review
Velásquez, N. S., Cuadrado‐Peñafiel, V., & Marcos, R. D. L. V. (2024) · Nutrición Hospitalaria · doi:10.20960/nh.04820 · Cited by 8
A Pilot Study on In-Task Affect Predicting Free-Living Adherence to HIIT and MICT
Ivanova, E. L., Sadikaj, G., Bourne, J. E., Beauchamp, M. R., Little, J. P., & Jung, M. E. (2020) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2020.1828562 · Cited by 11
“…Threshold, or VT) predominantly cognitive factors influence perceptions of how pleasant-unpleasant the exercise is perceived, while at higher intensities (> VT) most individuals report displeasure because in-task affect is largely determined by interoceptive feedback (Ekkekakis, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialWhat Can We Sense? Interoceptive Accuracy
Köteles, F. G. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-63201-4_4 · Cited by 7
Affective and Enjoyment Responses to Sprint Interval Exercise at Different Hypoxia Levels
Kong, Z., Hu, M., Sun, S., Zou, L., Shi, Q., Jiao, Y., & Nie, J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18158171 · Cited by 7
“Exercise intensity is a primary factor influencing affective responses in continuous training according to the dual-mode theory [22], yet affective responses to SIT with all-out effort could be influenced by other factors, for example, varied methodologies applied across studies.”
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Physical effort biases the perceived pleasantness of neutral faces: A virtual reality study
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“The dual-mode theory is based on the premise that cognitive and interoceptive factors have different weights on individuals’ affective responses depending on the exercise intensity, below or above the lactate and ventilatory thresholds—LT/VT [20].”
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The Feeling of Pleasure for Overweight Children during Different Types of Physical Activity
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“It is known that there is a negative relationship between exercise intensity and feelings of pleasure, and that exercise intensities above the ventilatory threshold (close to the point of respiratory compensation) generate feelings of displeasure [54–56].”
Kao, S., Brush, C. J., & Wang, C. (2024) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2024.05.011 · Cited by 9
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Active urbanism: The potential effect of urban design on bone health
Boldina, A., Gomes, B. B., & Steemers, K. (2021) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2021.1921512 · Cited by 7
“Recent studies have shown that many lifestyle decisions are made based on impulses, ‘thinking fast’, rather than logic and aiming for remote goals by ‘thinking slow’ (Ekkekakis 2003, Kahneman 2018).”
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“In line with previous theory (see Ekkekakis, 2003), the light intensity exercise engaged in here did not appear to pre-sent a challenge to maintaining a positive affective response.”
InfluentialSmith-Ricketts, J., Beaumont, C. T., Fleming, J. K., Hornbuckle, L. M., & Strohacker, K. A. (2022) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2022-0064 · Cited by 5
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General Neural Process in Cycling Exercise
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“According to the dual theory model [21], affective responses are the result of self-efficacy and interoceptive cues that reach the affective center of the brain and modulate its activity.”
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“The dual-mode model [18] suggests that the acute affective valence people experience during exercise is dependent upon exercise intensity.”
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“In this regard, the dual-mode model (DMM) of Ekkekakis [19] describes the role of the VT and the cognitive appraisal process in affective responding for physical activity.”
BackgroundOne-HIIT wonder: Can music make high-intensity interval training more pleasant?
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The Theory of Hedonic Motivation
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“Ekkekakis (2003) suggested a dual-mode theory to interpret this negative affect above the anaerobic threshold.”
BackgroundLoad Carriage and Physical Exertion Influence Soldier Emotional Responses
Giles, G. E., da Costa, K. G., Olenich, S., Powell, K., Hart-Pomerantz, H., ADELMAN, M. J., Elmore, W. R., & Cantelon, J. A. (2022) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002997 · Cited by 5
“01, percent V̇O2peak was higher during the loaded than unloaded foot march beginning at minute 0, t(12) = 2.”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of mental fatigue and attentional focus on muscular endurance performance
Flemington, A., Harris, S., & Bray, S. R. (2023) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2023.2251030 · Cited by 4
“…that a shift towards an internal focus as duration or intensity increases may be associated with increasingly salient signals within the body (Ekkekakis, 2003) such as increased muscle activation with internal attentional focus compared to external attentional focus instructions (Lohse &…”
Limmeroth, J., Pauly, H., Schücker, L., Zenko, Z., & Hagemann, N. (2024) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102616 · Cited by 5
Greene, D. R., & Rougeau, K. M. (2024) · Psychology International · doi:10.3390/psycholint6040054 · Cited by 9
“Finally, as the exercise intensity exceeds the lactate or ventilatory threshold, there is a homogeneous decline in in-task valence, as individuals are no longer able to maintain a steady state [49–52].”
Rodrigues, L., Moncion, K., Angelopolous, S. A., Heras, B. D. L., Sweet, S. N., Eng, J. J., Fung, J., MacKay-Lyons, M. J., Tang, A., & Roig, M. (2025) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2025.01.468 · Cited by 4
Rhoden, C. L., West, J., Renfree, A., Corbett, M., & Gibson, A. S. C. (2014) · South African Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.7196/sajsm.496 · Cited by 4
Experimental Effects of Priming on Affective Responses to Acute Exercise
Addoh, O., Sanders, R. T., & Loprinzi, P. D. (2020) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych2010007 · Cited by 4
“There are variable findings with exercise intensity and affect, and this may be related to individual preference [73], as well as physiological variables, such as ventilation, oxygen uptake, lactate concentration, and core body temperature during exercise [17].”
BackgroundDenis, G., Radel, R., Deshayes, M., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2021.1995020 · Cited by 4
“a dissociative strategy seems able to reduce the perception of sensory signals, bottom-up sensations can no longer be ignored when the effort becomes more intense (Ekkekakis, 2003) and the sensory feedback is necessarily compared to the initial interoceptive prediction.”
BackgroundDay, J. K., Burns, J., & Weed, M. (2021) · International Review for the Sociology of Sport · doi:10.1177/10126902211053535 · Cited by 4
“Within the natural sciences, there is a well-established evidence base suggesting the relative physiological intensity of physical activity participation is a central element in the psychological interpretation of whether an individual appraises the experience as being characterised by pleasure or displeasure (Ekkekak…”
BackgroundInfluentialEmpirical links between emotions and listening to music mid- and post-exercise
Shin, M., Kim, Y., & Ahn, J. (2022) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356211070040 · Cited by 6
“FS is a single-item questionnaire designed to measure the change in affective state during exercise and has been used in many studies (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis et al., 2011; Zenko & Ekkekakis, 2019).”
BackgroundMethodAdvances in Advertising Research IX
Cauberghe, V., Hudders, L., & Eisend, M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-22681-7 · Cited by 5
Hösl, B., Straif, J., Niedermeier, M., & Kopp, M. (2024) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12566 · Cited by 5
Genetic Modification of the Effects of Exercise Behavior on Mental Health
Schutte, N. M., Bartels, M., & de Geus, E. J. C. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00064 · Cited by 4
Feeling states during exercise: Influence of individual differences in perceived evaluative threat
Focht, B. C. (2011) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2010.500336 · Cited by 4
“…stimuli are more influential determinants of affect during less intense bouts of exercise, and sensations emanating from the physiological demands of activity are increasingly more salient determinants of affect as the intensity of exercise becomes more demanding (Ekkekakis, 2003; Rejeski, 1985).”
BackgroundSport tut gut?! Bewegung und Wohlbefinden
Brand, R., & Kanning, M. K. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-53407-6_36 · Cited by 5
Haile, L., Gallagher, M. S., & Robertson, R. J. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1917-8_2 · Cited by 4
Vasconcelos, G. C., Costa, B. D. V., Damorim, I. R., Santos, T. M., Cyrino, E. S., de Lima-Júnior, D. R. A. A., & Fortes, L. D. S. (2019) · Journal of Physical Education and Sport · doi:10.7752/jpes.2019.s3118 · Cited by 4
Bravo-Aparicio, J., Domínguez-López, P., Díaz-González, C., Álvarez, D. M.-C., Álvarez, D. M., & Beltrán-Alacreu, H. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app142210592 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Ekkekakis, P.
- Affiliations
- a Iowa State University, Ames, USA
- Venue
- Cognition and Emotion
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 213-239
- ISSN
- 0269-9931 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0600
- OpenAlex
- W2056702675
- Cited by
- 619
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 5.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cognition & Emotion (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- acute exercise, affective responses to exercise, pleasure, displeasure, physical self-efficacy, interoceptive cues, exercise intensity
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