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Gender, class, and access to water: Three cases in a poor and crowded delta.
Open accessAbstract
Water plays a pivotal role in economic activity and in human well-being. Because of the prominence of water in production (primarily for irrigation) and in domestic use (drinking, washing, cooking), conflict over water and the effects of gender-influenced decisions about water may have far-reaching consequences on human well-being, economic growth, and social change. At the same time, social conflicts and social change are shaped and mediated, often in unexpected ways, by the natural conditions in which water occurs. The social relations of water are poorly understood. This article introduces a framework for disaggregating conditions of access to water and uses it to examine three pressing questions in Bangladesh. First, extraction of groundwater for irrigation has made many drinking-water hand pumps run dry. Second, increasing use of groundwater for drinking has been associated with the poisoning of at least 20 million people through naturally occurring arsenic in groundwater. Third, the article examines some of the ways access to water has been changed by the rise of shrimp aquaculture for export. This article highlights new directions for the analysis of interactions among water, class, and gender. The existing literature has tended to focus on the implications of gender analysis for government policy, especially development projects and water resources management, and for women's organization. In this article we begin to sketch some questions that arise from a concern to understand the broader context of social change.
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“General harassment, including taunting, teasing, name calling, and throwing things at women or girls is more frequently observed in sanitation [138, 168, 174, 175, 181, 187, 190, 263] than water research [168,199] Sexual harassment, including verbal harassment, peeping, flashing, and male masturbation is also more frequently documented in sanitation [171-174, 189, 190, 214, 217, 226, 231, 233]”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [199]
In the citing paper
“Women reported experiencing or fearing diarrhea, vomiting, dysentery, cholera, hepatitis, schistosomiasis, and skin diseases due to polluted water, [65,70,86,111,144,177,178,197,199,214,220,225,231,248,259,273,288] and experiencing diarrhea due to limitations on hygiene in times of water scarcity [70,123,202].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [199]
In the citing paper
“When women lacked control over income and assets, they had limited decision-making power over improving or accessing water sources [65,76,86,118,123,194,199,201,258,292].Constrained finances limited women's access to preferred water sources, [64,86,111,158,170,194,[197][198][199] desired water quantity, [86,192] and water treatment methods [86,111,118,204,293].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [199]
In the citing paper
“Women reported challenges related to privacy and water, specifically concerning hygiene.Women and girls in Bangladesh, [199] India, [184, 189, 226] Indonesia, [115] and Mozambique [175, 261] described challenges obtaining privacy at water sources used for bathing, post-defecation cleansing, and washing, particularly during menstruation.”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [199]
In the citing paper
“Constraints on women's time limit access to safe water or resources needed to treat or boil water [92,118,197,199,208]. Women also spend considerable time caring for family members ill with waterrelated diseases [26,63,111,177,193,239,240,248,259].”
From Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2022) · cites this paper as [199]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Crow, B., & Sultana, F.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- ORCID
- Sultana, Farhana
- Venue
- Society & Natural Resources
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2002-09
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 709-724
- ISSN
- 0894-1920 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-0723
- OpenAlex
- W1559454724
- Cited by
- 186
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 7.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.escholarship.org
- Locations
- Society & Natural Resources (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Minnesota
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Water Governance and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Transboundary Water Resource Management
- Keywords
- water access, gender, social class, groundwater pumping, arsenic toxicity, drinking water, irrigation, shrimp aquaculture, Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta, Bangladesh, social change, water conflicts, hand pumps
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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