Factors that influence the generation of autobiographical memory conjunction errors
Open accessAbstract
The constructive nature of memory is generally adaptive, allowing us to efficiently store, process and learn from life events, and simulate future scenarios to prepare ourselves for what may come. However, the cost of a flexibly constructive memory system is the occasional conjunction error, whereby the components of an event are authentic, but the combination of those components is false. Using a novel recombination paradigm, it was demonstrated that details from one autobiographical memory (AM) may be incorrectly incorporated into another, forming AM conjunction errors that elude typical reality monitoring checks. The factors that contribute to the creation of these conjunction errors were examined across two experiments. Conjunction errors were more likely to occur when the corresponding details were partially rather than fully recombined, likely due to increased plausibility and ease of simulation of partially recombined scenarios. Brief periods of imagination increased conjunction error rates, in line with the imagination inflation effect. Subjective ratings suggest that this inflation is due to similarity of phenomenological experience between conjunction and authentic memories, consistent with a source monitoring perspective. Moreover, objective scoring of memory content indicates that increased perceptual detail may be particularly important for the formation of AM conjunction errors.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Failures of source or reality monitoring occur because remembered and imagined events are often very similar in content and phenomenology, for instance when imagined events are elaborate, vivid, and plausible.
“By the continuist view, failures of source/reality monitoring occur because remembered and imagined events are often very similar in content and phenomenology, for instance, when imagined events are elaborate, vivid, and plausible (Devitt, Monk-Fromont, Schacter, & Addis, 2016;Garry, Manning, Loftus, & Sherman, 1996;Johnson et al., 1993).”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Devitt, Monk-Fromont, Schacter, & Addis, 2016
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
REMEMBERING: A STUDY IN EXPERIMENTAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Bartlett, F. C., & Burt, C. (1933) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1933.tb02913.x · Cited by 7,475 · see citing works
Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3 · Cited by 3,392 · see citing works
The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future
Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2087 · Cited by 1,836 · see citing works
Self-citationAging and autobiographical memory: dissociating episodic from semantic retrieval
Levine, B., Svoboda, E., Hay, J. F., Winocur, G., & Moscovitch, M. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.677 · Cited by 1,521 · see citing works
Phenomenal characteristics of memories for perceived and imagined autobiographical events.
Johnson, M. K., Foley, M. A., Suengas, A. G., & Raye, C. L. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.4.371 · Cited by 1,046 · see citing works
THE COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY
Schacter, D. L., Norman, K. A., & Koutstaal, W. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289 · Cited by 827 · see citing works
Self-citationAge-Related Changes in the Episodic Simulation of Future Events
Addis, D. R., Wong, A. T., & Schacter, D. L. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02043.x · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Self-citationImagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred
Garry, M., Manning, C. G., Loftus, E. F., & Sherman, S. J. (1996) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03212420 · Cited by 648 · see citing works
Addis, D. R., Pan, L., Vu, M.-A. T., Laiser, N., & Schacter, D. L. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.026 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
Self-citationKassin, S. M., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (2004) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00016.x · Cited by 572 · see citing works
Reconsolidation: maintaining memory relevance
Lee, J. L. C. (2009) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.002 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
Memory distortion: an adaptive perspective
Schacter, D. L., Guerin, S. A., & St. Jacques, P. L. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.004 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Self-citationImagination inflation for action events: Repeated imaginings lead to illusory recollections
Goff, L. M., & Roediger, H. L., III (1998) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03211367 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Our changeable memories: legal and practical implications
Loftus, E. F. (2003) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1054 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Poole, D. A., Lindsay, D. S., Memon, A., & Bull, R. H. C. (1995) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.63.3.426 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Imagination can create false autobiographical memories
Mazzoni, G., & Memon, A. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01821.x · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Changing beliefs about implausible autobiographical events: A little plausibility goes a long way.
Mazzoni, G. A. L., Loftus, E. F., & Kirsch, I. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.7.1.51 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Neural evidence that vivid imagining can lead to false remembering
Gonsalves, B., Reber, P. J., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. B., Mesulam, M.-M., & Paller, K. A. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00736.x · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Cohesion Failure as a Source of Memory Illusions
Kroll, N. E. A., Knight, R. T., Metcalfe, J., Wolf, E. S., & Tulving, E. (1996) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1996.0010 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Plausibility and belief in autobiographical memory
Scoboria, A., Mazzoni, G., Kirsch, I., & Relyea, M. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1062 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Szpunar, K. K., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0028877 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationLullien‐Pellerin, V., Popineau, Y., Meersman, F., Morel, M., Heremans, K., Lange, R., & Balny, C. (2001) · PubMed · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Creating bizarre false memories through imagination
Thomas, A. K., & Loftus, E. F. (2002) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03194942 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Comparing recollective experience in true and false autobiographical memories.
Heaps, C. M., & Nash, M. R. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.27.4.920 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Individual differences in imagination inflation
Heaps, C., & Nash, M. (1999) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03214120 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Reinitz, M. T., Lammers, W. J., & Cochran, B. P. (1992) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03208247 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Poole, D. A., Lindsay, D. S., Memon, A., et al. (1995) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.63.3.426 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Exploring the role of repetition and sensory elaboration in the imagination inflation effect
Thomas, A. K., Bulevich, J. B., & Loftus, E. F. (2003) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196103 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Garry, M., & Polaschek, D. L. L. (2000) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00048 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
The case against a criterion-shift account of false memory.
Wixted, J. T., & Stretch, V. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.2.368 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Feature and Conjunction Errors in Recognition Memory: Evidence for Dual-Process Theory
Jones, T. C., & Jacoby, L. L. (2001) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2761 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Garry, M., & Wade, K. A. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196385 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Role of attention in face encoding.
Reinitz, M. T., Morrissey, J. F., & Demb, J. B. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.1.161 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Comparing recollective experience in true and false autobiographical memories.
Heaps, C. M., & Nash, M. R. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.920 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Rubin, S. R., Petten, C. K. V., Glisky, E. L., & Newberg, W. M. (1999) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/026432999380889 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory
St. Jacques, P. L., Olm, C., & Schacter, D. L. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1319630110 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationImagination and memory: Does imagining implausible events lead to false autobiographical memories?
Pezdek, K., Blandon-Gitlin, I., & Gabbay, P. (2006) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193994 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Page, J. P., Munagala, N. R., & Wang, C. C. (1999) · European Journal of Biochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00020.x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Howe, M. L., Garner, S. R., Charlesworth, M., & Knott, L. M. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.012 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Event cueing, event clusters, and the temporal distribution of autobiographical memories
Brown, N. R., & Schopflocher, D. (1998) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(199808)12:4 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Nash, R. A., Wade, K. A., & Lindsay, D. S. (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.37.4.414 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Making the future memorable: The phenomenology of remembered future events
McLelland, V. C., Devitt, A. L., Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2014) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.972960 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationMind Myths: exploring popular assumptions about the mind and the brain
Sala, S. D. (2004) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Marsh, R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Davis, T. (2002) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/s0749-596x(02)00005-0 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Effects of Simultaneous Stimulus Presentation and Attention Switching on Memory Conjunction Errors
Reinitz, M. T., & Hannigan, S. L. (2001) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2727 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Imagination or Exposure Causes Imagination Inflation
Sharman, S. J., Garry, M., & Beuke, C. J. (2004) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/4149020 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Memory conjunction errors for autobiographical events: More than just familiarity
Odegard, T. N., & Lampinen, J. M. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210244000621 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Qualities of memories for performed and imagined actions
Lampinen, J. M., Odegard, T. N., & Bullington, J. L. (2003) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.916 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Explain this: explaining childhood events inflates confidence for those events
Sharman, S. J., Manning, C. G., & Garry, M. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1041 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
When false recognition is out of control: The case of facial conjunctions
Jones, T. C., & Bartlett, J. C. (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.37.2.143 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Jones, T. C., & Jacoby, L. L. (2005) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2005.03.003 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Memory for true and false autobiographical event descriptions
Burt, C. D. B., Kemp, S. P. T., & Conway, M. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210344000071 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
False Memories and Persuasion Strategies
Leding, J. K. (2012) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027700 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
False recollection of the role played by an actor in an event
Kersten, A. W., Earles, J. L. K., & Upshaw, C. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0334-5 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Implausibility inhibits but does not eliminate false autobiographical beliefs.
Scoboria, A., Mazzoni, G., Jarry, J., & Shapero, D. (2012) · Canadian journal of experimental psychology = Revue canadienne de psychologie experimentale · doi:10.1037/a0030017 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Mazzoni, G. A. L. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194064 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
True and intentionally fabricated memories
Justice, L. V., Morrison, C. M., & Conway, M. A. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.734832 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
What is the Cause of Confidence Inflation in the Life Events Inventory (LEI) Paradigm?
Glahn, N. R. V., Otani, H., Migita, M., Langford, S. J., & Hillard, E. E. (2012) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2012.672938 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Short Article: Recognition accuracy for original and altered verbal memory reports in older adults
Katinka Dijkstra, B., & Mısırlısoy, M. (2008) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210802303693 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The science of law and memory.
Zember, E., Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., et al. (2012) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13744-007 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation.
Addis, D. R. (2020) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-020-00470-0 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Self-citationSchacter, D. L., & Madore, K. P. (2016) · Memory Studies · doi:10.1177/1750698016645230 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationAre episodic memories special? On the sameness of remembered and imagined event simulation
Addis, D. R. (2018) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2018.1439071 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Self-citationFlexible retrieval: When true inferences produce false memories.
Carpenter, A. C., & Schacter, D. L. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000340 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory and Imagination: Perspectives on Constructive Episodic Simulation
Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2020) · The Cambridge Handbook of the Imagination · doi:10.1017/9781108580298.008 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationEscaping the Past: Contributions of the Hippocampus to Future Thinking and Imagination
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Szpunar, K. K. (2017) · The Hippocampus from Cells to Systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50406-3_14 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationNonprobative photos rapidly lead people to believe claims about their own (and other people’s) pasts
Cardwell, B. A., Henkel, L. A., Garry, M., Newman, E. J., & Foster, J. L. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0603-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
- Authors
- Devitt, A. L., Monk-Fromont, E., Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Auckland (NZ)
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Devitt, Aleea L.
- Venue
- Memory
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-01-22
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 204-222
- ISSN
- 0965-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0686
- PMC
- PMC4511726
- OpenAlex
- W2053353485
- Cited by
- 36
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 12 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 2.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Memory (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01 AG08441)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- autobiographical memory, conjunction errors, memory construction, imagination inflation, source monitoring, reality monitoring, perceptual detail
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Imagination, Male, Mental Recall, Repression, Psychology, Young Adult, Memory, Episodic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
