THE COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY

Schacter, Daniel L.; Norman, Kenneth A.; Koutstaal, Wilma

doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289

Cited by 827Memory Processes and InfluencesCognitive Functions and MemoryMemory and Neural Mechanisms

THE COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY

Schacter, Daniel L., Norman, Kenneth A., Koutstaal, Wilma·1998·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289

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Abstract

▪ Abstract Numerous empirical and theoretical observations point to the constructive nature of human memory. This paper reviews contemporary research pertaining to two major types of memory distortions that illustrate such constructive processes: (a) false recognition and (b) intrusions and confabulations. A general integrative framework that outlines the types of problems that the human memory system must solve in order to produce mainly accurate representations of past experience is first described. This constructive memory framework (CMF) emphasizes processes that operate at encoding (initially binding distributed features of an episode together as a coherent trace; ensuring sufficient pattern separation of similar episodes) and also at retrieval (formation of a sufficiently focused retrieval description with which to query memory; postretrieval monitoring and verification). The framework is applied to findings from four different areas of research: cognitive studies of young adults, neuropsychological investigations of brain-damaged patients, neuroimaging studies, and studies of cognitive aging.

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The introduction states that episodic recollection is usually treated as a reconstructive process rather than a perfect replay.
“Recollection of this type of memory is widely accepted to be a reconstructive process”
From Using Imagination to Understand the Neural Basis of Episodic Memory (2007) · cites this paper as Schacter et al., 1998
Real memories are reconstructed along very similar lines to the way imagined events are constructed.
“Given this, it would seem reasonable to propose that real memories are reconstructed along very similar lines to the way imagined events are constructed, dovetailing with the idea that memory is (re)constructive in nature (Bartlett, 1932; Schacter et al., 1998; Conway and Pleydell-Pearce, 2000; Rubin et al., 2003; Hassabis and Maguire, 2007; Schacter and Addis, 2007).”
From Using Imagination to Understand the Neural Basis of Episodic Memory (2007) · cites this paper as Schacter et al., 1998
The notion that scene construction is a key component of episodic memory recall lends further support to constructive theories of episodic memory and the constructive episodic simulation function of the episodic memory system.
“Moreover, the notion that scene construction is a key component of episodic memory recall lends further support to constructive theories of episodic memory (Barlett, 1932; Schacter et al., 1998) and the recently proposed constructive episodic simulation function of the episodic memory system (Schacter and Addis 2007; Schacter et al., 2007).”
From Using Imagination to Understand the Neural Basis of Episodic Memory (2007) · cites this paper as Schacter et al., 1998
Episodic retrieval involves synchronous reactivation of activation patterns in cortical areas that initially processed elements of the original experience, reconstructing the originally encoded representation.
“Furthermore, neuroimaging has provided evidence that, for instance, episodic retrieval involves synchronous reactivation of activation patterns in the cortical areas that initially processed the elements of the original experience, thereby reconstructing the originally-encoded representation of the experience (Fuster, 1997;Schacter et al., 1998).”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Schacter et al., 1998
Cognitive studies have shown that a memory may be missing elements or may contain new information, including schema-relevant or newly encountered information.
“Since the seminal work of Bartlett (1932), numerous cognitive studies have demonstrated that a memory may be missing elements and/or may contain new information (information that is schema-relevant and/or was newly encountered since the original experience; Schacter, Norman, & Koutstaal, 1998).”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Schacter, Norman, & Koutstaal, 1998

Episodic memories are collections of associated elements that are reconstructed during retrieval.
“episodic memories are sets of associated elements that are reconstructed at retrieval (Schacter et al., 1998)”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Schacter et al., 1998
The hippocampus is essential for forming and retrieving associations between elements.
“the hippocampus is critical for mediating the (re)creation of associations at encoding and retrieval.”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Schacter et al., 1998
Retrieval of episodic memories reconstructs the memory, often at the expense of accuracy.
“By contrast, the retrieval of episodic memories reconstructs the memory, often at the expense of accuracy [29,30].”
From Is episodic-like memory like episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
Episodic memory in humans is reconstructive in nature, in that features are separated and stored individually at encoding and recombined at retrieval to recreate the event narrative.
“Episodic memory in humans is reconstructive in nature, in that the features of these memories are separated and stored individually at encoding, and then recombined at retrieval to recreate the event narrative [30].”
From Is episodic-like memory like episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
Memory is not an exact reproduction of past experiences but a constructive process subject to errors and distortions.
“Research in psychology and neuroscience supports the idea that memory is not an exact reproduction of past experiences, but is instead a constructive process subject to a variety of errors and distortions (1–8).”
From Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory (2013) · cites this paper as [5]

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Confabulation: Knowledge and recollective experience
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Beyond HERA: Contributions of specific prefrontal brain areas to long-term memory retrieval
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When Things That Were Never Experienced Are Easier To “Remember” Than Things That Were
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PRESERVED RECALL VERSUS IMPAIRED RECOGNITION:
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Accuracy and Distortion in Memory for High School Grades
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False recognition after a right frontal lobe infarction: Memory for general and specific information
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Anosognosia, intrusions and ‘frontal’ functions in Alzheimer's disease and depression
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Boundary Extension for Briefly Glimpsed Photographs: Do Common Perceptual Processes Result in Unexpected Memory Distortions?
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Role of attention in face encoding.
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When True Recognition Suppresses False Recognition: Evidence from Amnesic Patients
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Creating Illusions of Familiarity in a Cued Recall Remember/Know Paradigm
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Adult Age Differences in False Recognitions
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Neural basis of confabulation
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Autobiographical Memory Loss and Confabulation in Korsakoff's Syndrome: A Case Report
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Neuroimaging Studies of Memory: Theory and Recent PET Results
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Memory distortion: History and current status
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Predicting Neurobehavioral Patterns Following Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysm
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The domain of supervisory processes and the temporal organisation of behaviour
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Neuropsychology of the amnesic syndrome
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Source memory: Extending the boundaries of age-related deficits.
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Reconstructive remembering of the scientific literature
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Partial Learning and Recognition Memory in the Aged
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False Recognition of Unfamiliar Faces Following Right Hemisphere Damage: Neuropsychological and Anatomical Observations
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True and false memories in children and adults: A cognitive neuroscience perspective.
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Age differences in conversational source monitoring.
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Do YouReallyKnow What You Have Seen? Intrusion Errors and Presuppositions Effects on Constructive Memory
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Memory Conjunction Errors in Normal and Amnesic Subjects
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The reality of illusory memories
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Confabulation in Alzheimer's disease
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Guanine nucleotides inhibit the stimulation of GFAP phosphorylation by glutamate
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Effects of category length and strength on familiarity in recognition.
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Encoding Specificity and Intrusion in Alzheimers-Disease and Amnesia
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Can cognitive neuroscience illuminate the nature of traumatic childhood memories?
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Effects of Semantically Related and Unrelated Contexts on Recognition Memory of Different-Aged Adults
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False recognition of unfamiliar people: "Seeing film stars everywhere"
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Integration of discrete verbal units in recognition memory.
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Implicit Memory, Explicit Memory, and False Recollection: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective
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False positives in recognition memory produced by cohort activation
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The Cognitive Neuroscience of False Memories
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Biological foundations of accuracy and inaccuracy in memory.
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Role of attention in face encoding.
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Semantic homophone priming in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type.
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Illusory Recall of Vocal Affect
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Toward a Veridical Interpretation of Right-Hemisphere Processing and Storage
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Semantic homophone priming in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type.
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Rafferty (1986) · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198605)42:3

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The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system
Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.2.261 · Cited by 4,089 · see citing works
Remembering the past and imagining the future: common and distinct neural substrates during event construction and elaboration
Addis, D. R., Wong, A. T., & Schacter, D. L. (2007) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.016 · Cited by 1,949 · see citing works
Self-citation
The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future
Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2087 · Cited by 1,836 · see citing works
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The Neurobiology of Consolidations, Or, How Stable is the Engram?
Dudai, Y. (2004) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142050 · Cited by 1,671 · see citing works
The future of memory: remembering, imagining, and the brain
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., Hassabis, D., Martin, V. C., Spreng, R. N., & Szpunar, K. K. (2012) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.11.001 · Cited by 1,398 · see citing works
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Deconstructing episodic memory with construction
Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.001 · Cited by 1,229 · see citing works
Using Imagination to Understand the Neural Basis of Episodic Memory
Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4549-07.2007 · Cited by 744 · see citing works
“…reconstructed along very similar lines to the way imagined events are constructed, dovetailing with the idea that memory is (re)constructive in nature (Bartlett, 1932; Schacter et al., 1998; Conway and Pleydell-Pearce, 2000; Rubin et al., 2003; Hassabis and Maguire, 2007; Schacter and Addis, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
The cognitive functions of language
Carruthers, P. (2002) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x02000122 · Cited by 728 · see citing works
The Science of False Memory
(2005) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195154054.001.0001 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Reconsolidation: maintaining memory relevance
Lee, J. L. C. (2009) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.002 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
The construction system of the brain
Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0296 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Neuroimaging studies of the hippocampus in schizophrenia
Heckers, S. (2001) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.1068 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
How warnings about false claims become recommendations
Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C., & Schwarz, N. (2005) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/426605 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Episodic memory in normal aging and Alzheimer disease: Insights from imaging and behavioral studies
Tromp, D., Dufour, A., Lithfous, S., Pebayle, T., & Després, O. (2015) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2015.08.006 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
A unified framework for the functional organization of the medial temporal lobes and the phenomenology of episodic memory
Ranganath, C. (2010) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20852 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
The Neuropsychology of autobiographical memory
GREENBERG, D., & RUBIN, D. (2003) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70860-8 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
The Hippocampus and Imagining the Future: Where Do We Stand?
Addis, D. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00173 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Self-citation
Co-activation of the amygdala, hippocampus and inferior frontal gyrus during autobiographical memory retrieval
Greenberg, D. L., Rice, H. J., Cooper, J. J., Cabeza, R., Rubin, D. C., & LaBar, K. S. (2005) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.09.002 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Spontaneous confabulation and the adaptation of thought to ongoing reality
Schnider, A. (2003) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1179 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation.
Addis, D. R. (2020) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-020-00470-0 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
A neural-level model of spatial memory and imagery
Bicanski, A., & Burgess, N. (2018) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.33752 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Prediction and memory: A predictive coding account
Barron, H. C., Auksztulewicz, R., & Friston, K. (2020) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101821 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Creativity and the brain: uncovering the neural signature of conceptual expansion
Abraham, A., Pieritz, K., Thybusch, K., Rutter, B., Kröger, S., Schweckendiek, J., Stark, R., Windmann, S., & Hermann, C. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.015 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
A Bridge Over Troubled Water: Reconsolidation as a Link Between Cognitive and Neuroscientific Memory Research Traditions
Hardt, O., Einarsson, E. Ö., & Nader, K. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100455 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Are episodic memories special? On the sameness of remembered and imagined event simulation
Addis, D. R. (2018) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2018.1439071 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Binding, relational memory, and recall of naturalistic events: a developmental perspective
Sluzenski, J., Newcombe, N. S., & Kovacs, S. L. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.1.89 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
False memories and aging
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Authors: Schacter, D. L., Norman, K. A., & Koutstaal, W.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
ORCID: Schacter, Daniel L.
Norman, Kenneth A.
Koutstaal, Wilma
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 1998-02
Volume: 49
Issue: 1
Pages: 289-318
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289
OpenAlex: W2166245738
Cited by: 827
References: 175
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 33
FWCI: 3.25
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (AG 08441)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Keywords: constructive memory, memory distortion, false recognition, confabulation, intrusion errors, memory encoding, pattern separation, memory retrieval, episodic memory, brain-damaged patients, cognitive aging, neuroimaging of memory
MeSH terms: Adult, Aging, Association, Brain Injuries, Frontal Lobe, Humans, Illusions, Memory, Memory Disorders, Neuropsychological Tests, Temporal Lobe

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THE COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY

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