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Sharing Versus Pseudo-Sharing in Web 2.0
Abstract
The Internet has opened up a new era in sharing. There has also been an explosion of studies and writings about sharing via the Internet. This includes a series of books, articles, and web discussions on the topic. However, many of these apparent cases of sharing are better characterized as pseudo-sharing — commodity exchanges wrapped in a vocabulary of sharing. The present paper reviews subsequent research and theorizing as well as controversies that have emerged surrounding sharing and what is best regarded as pseudo-sharing — a wolf-insheep’s-clothing phenomenon whereby commodity exchange and potential exploitation of consumer co-creators present themselves in the guise of sharing. The paper begins with a pair of vignettes that highlight some of the contested meanings of sharing. By detailing four types of pseudo-sharing and four types of sharing that are specifically enabled or enhanced by Internet technologies, the paper argues that pseudo-sharing is distinguished by the presence of profit motives, the absence of feelings of community, and expectations of reciprocity. It concludes with a discussion of theoretical, practical, and ethical implications of pseudo-sharing and offer suggestions for future research.
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“These innovations have created new alternatives for sharing, for both communal and utilitarian purposes, simplifying the process compared to pre-accessible internet age (Belk 2014).”
From A cross-cultural study of nonprofit self-organized ridesharing (2024) · cites this paper as Belk 2014
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“…sharing has been critiqued (e.g., Arnould & Rose, 2016), such opposition pales in comparison to the wide body of research that has closely followed in its footsteps (Belk, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c; Davidson et al., 2018; Eckhardt & Bardhi, 2016; Gollnhofer et al., 2016; Habibi et al., 2016, 2017).”
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Burinskienė, A., Grybaitė, V., & Lingaitienė, O. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16041702 · Cited by 10
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Peer-to-Peer Sharing of Private Goods: Sellers’ Response and Consumers’ Benefits
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Sharing mobilities. Some propaedeutic considerations
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“…sharing question of who is part of the sharing economy and who is not has led to heated debate, including attempts to distinguish “real sharing” from “pseudo-sharing” (Belk 2014) or the sharing economy from concepts such as “on-demand economy”, or “access-based econo - my”(Frenken and Schor 2017).”
BackgroundOnline transport services market in Russia amid economy digitalization
Simonova, M. D., & Mamiy, I. P. (2019) · Upravlenets · doi:10.29141/2218-5003-2019-10-3-9 · Cited by 10
“Позд-нее в ряде трудов [Belk, 2014; Hamari, Sjöklint, Ukkonen, 2016; Böcker, Meelen, 2017] Авторы статьи также опираются на исследование W. Skok, S. Baker [2018, р. 243], где выявляются такие про-блемы и последствия применения онлайн-агрегатора Uber в Лондоне, как статус занятости водителей,…”
Fundraising design: key issues, unifying framework, and open puzzles
Haruvy, E. E., Leszczyc, P. T. L. P., Allenby, G. M., Belk, R. W., Eckel, C. C., Fisher, R., Li, S. X., List, J. A., Ma, Y., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Marketing Letters · doi:10.1007/s11002-020-09534-8 · Cited by 10
Self-citationThe Sharing Economy in Europe: From Idea to Reality
Miguel, C., Avram, G., Klimczuk, A., Simonovits, B., Balázs, B., & Česnuitytė, V. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86897-0_1 · Cited by 10
“…the market-logic has been introduced into ever new spheres of life and therefore—even if unintentionally—led to an extractivist, precarious society based on unsustainable practices, new inequalities, and extraction of human and natural resources (Belk 2014; Schor 2014; Bradley and Pargman 2017).”
BackgroundLe partage des données génétiques : un nouveau capital
Stoeklé, H., Forster, N., Charlier, P., Bloch, O. C., Hervé, C., Turrini, M., & Vogt, G. (2018) · médecine/sciences · doi:10.1051/medsci/20183408022 · Cited by 9
How does collaborative economy contribute to common good?
Díaz, R. G.-Á., & Morales‐Sánchez, R. (2021) · Business Ethics the Environment & Responsibility · doi:10.1111/beer.12348 · Cited by 14
Henderson, A., Cao, M., & Liu, Q. (2022) · Future Transportation · doi:10.3390/futuretransp2010011 · Cited by 9
Rizzo, C., Sestino, A., Gutuleac, R., & Bertoldi, B. (2023) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-05-2023-0685 · Cited by 9
When sharing economy meets digital one
Паченков, О., & Yashina, A. (2017) · International Conference on Electronic Governance and Open Society: Challenges in Eurasia (EGOSE) · doi:10.1145/3129757.3129774 · Cited by 9
“Other scholars disagree with this approach and argue that “sharing” is unaffiliated with both, gift exchange and reciprocity, even generalized (see, for example, Belk, 2007, 2010, 2014).”
BackgroundDomesticity On-Demand: The Architectural and Urban Implications of Airbnb in Melbourne, Australia
Alexander, J. (2018) · Urban Science · doi:10.3390/urbansci2030088 · Cited by 9
Berman, E. (2020) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/708068 · Cited by 14
“Belk (2009, 2014) argues that sharing in the West happens mainly within the immediate and extended family but then goes on to identify new forms of sharing made possible by the internet.”
BackgroundIs the Sharing Economy a Field? How a Disruptive Field Nurtures Sharing Economy Organizations
Wruk, D., Schöllhorn, T., & Oberg, A. (2020) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0733-558x20200000066007 · Cited by 11
Muraguri, E. K., Sun, J., & Samake, A. (2020) · Sustinere Journal of Environment and Sustainability · doi:10.22515/sustinere.jes.v4i2.104 · Cited by 12
“Belk (2014) concluded that consumers are most likely to have positive attitude towards ethical consumption because the benefits derived exceed the cost incurred.”
BackgroundPost-digital prosumption and the sharing economy of space: The pay-per-minute cafe
Kviat, A. (2021) · Journal of Consumer Culture · doi:10.1177/14695405211022080 · Cited by 9
“Seeking to ‘separate rhetoric from reality’ (Nadeem et al., 2015: 13; see also Cockayne, 2016) and unpick ‘true sharing’ from ‘pseudo-sharing’ (Belk, 2014), this line of discussion contrasts ‘genuinely collaborative and communal’ projects, aiming to provide an alternative to the dominant capitalist…”
BackgroundAccess-Based Consumption in the Built Environment: Sharing Spaces
Lundgren, R., Kyrö, R., & Jylhä, T. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14095550 · Cited by 10
Dung, L. T., & Binh, N. T. (2026) · Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management · doi:10.1002/csr.70468 · Cited by 11
Güçlü, M. S., Erdil, O., Kitapçı, H., & Altındağ, E. (2023) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440231177040 · Cited by 14
“Therefore, most transactions in SE are not sharing but pseudo-sharing, which describes business relationships wrapped in the word ‘‘ sharing ’’ (Belk, 2014a).”
BackgroundBiohacking COVID-19: Sharing Is Not Always Caring
Lima, V., & Belk, R. W. (2023) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1177/07439156231183001 · Cited by 8
“In this vein, by combining the sharing theory (Belk 2007, 2010, 2014a, 2014b, 2016) and motivations for acting prosocially (Batson, Ahmad, and Stocks 2011) with Andreoni’s (1989, 1990) notion of impure altruism, we find answers to our research question.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSharing economy as a field: Revisiting debates and introducing new research avenues
Shmidt, M. (2023) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.13120 · Cited by 8
Toni, M., Renzi, M. F., Pietro, L. D., Mugion, R. G., & Mattia, G. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13115818 · Cited by 8
“People share for both functional and altruistic reasons [44], and sharing itself impacts environmental and social sustainability [45] by inciting a form of anti-consumption [46] and environmentally conscious behaviors [47,48].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Belk, R.
- Affiliations
- York University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Belk, Russell
- ORCID
- Belk, Russell
- Venue
- The Anthropologist
- Publisher
- Kamla Raj Enterprises
- Published
- 2014-07
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 7-23
- ISSN
- 0972-0073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2184849112
- Cited by
- 622
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 126.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Anthropologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Sharing Economy and Platforms
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Knowledge Management and Sharing
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media and Digital Communication
- Keywords
- sharing, Web 2.0, commodity exchange, customer co-creation, profit motive, reciprocity, community, ethics of sharing, internet technologies
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