Can dynamic in vitro digestion systems mimic the physiological reality?
Open accessAbstract
During the last decade, there has been a growing interest in understanding the fate of food during digestion in the gastrointestinal tract in order to strengthen the possible effects of food on human health. Ideally, food digestion should be studied in vivo on humans but this is not always ethically and financially possible. Therefore simple static in vitro digestion models mimicking the gastrointestinal tract have been proposed as alternatives to in vivo experiments but these models are quite basic and hardly recreate the complexity of the digestive tract. In contrast, dynamic models that allow pH regulation, flow of the food and injection in real time of digestive enzymes in the different compartments of the gastrointestinal tract are more promising to accurately mimic the digestive process. Most of the systems developed so far have been compared for their performances to in vivo data obtained on animals and/or humans. The objective of this article is to review the validation towards in vivo data of some of the dynamic digestion systems currently available in order to determine what aspects of food digestion they are able to mimic. Eight dynamic digestion systems are presented as well as their validation towards in vivo data. Advantages and limits of each simulator is discussed. This is the result of a cooperative international effort made by some of the scientists involved in Infogest, an international network on food digestion
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In vitro digestion methods have been widely applied.
“Thus, in vitro digestion methods have been widely applied (Dupont et al. 2019; S. Lee et al. 2023; Qazi et al. 2025).”
From Designing Protein Gels for Nutrient Delivery: From Formulation to Digestion (2026) · cites this paper as Dupont et al. 2019
Dynamic in vitro digestion systems mimic closely the physiological conditions of the human digestion tract compared to the in vitro static method.
“Dynamic in vitro digestion systems mimic closely the physiological conditions of human digestion tract compared to that of in vitro static method.”
From Designing Protein Gels for Nutrient Delivery: From Formulation to Digestion (2026) · cites this paper as Dupont et al. 2019
In vitro dynamic models have more physiologically complex simulations, such as the gradual addition of digestive juices, gastric emptying, gastrointestinal motility, or morphology.
“while in vitro dynamic models have more physiologically complex simulations, such as the gradual addition of digestive juices, gastric emptying, gastrointestinal motility, or morphology (Dupont et al. 2019).”
From Designing Protein Gels for Nutrient Delivery: From Formulation to Digestion (2026) · cites this paper as Dupont et al. 2019
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INFOGEST static in vitro simulation of gastrointestinal food digestion
Brodkorb, A., Egger, L., Alminger, M., Alvito, P., Assunção, R., Ballance, S., Bohn, T., Bourlieu-Lacanal, C., Boutrou, R., Carrière, F., et al. (2019) · Nature Protocols · doi:10.1038/s41596-018-0119-1 · Cited by 5,199 · see citing works
Self-citationProgress in microencapsulation of probiotics: A review
Yao, M., Xie, J., Du, H., McClements, D. J., Xiao, H., & Li, L. (2020) · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12532 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
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A review on the food digestion in the digestive tract and the used in vitro models
Şensoy, İ. (2021) · Current Research in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.crfs.2021.04.004 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
“This computer-controlled model (Table 2) simulating only the stomach can process real size chewed meals and simulates the physiological conditions such as mixing, the transit of meals, and forces observed in the stomach (Wickham et al., 2012; Dupont et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTamargo, A., Molinero, N., Reinosa, J. J., Alcolea-Rodriguez, V., Portela, R., Bañares, M. Á., Fernández, J. F., & Moreno-Arribas, M. V. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-04489-w · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Current Evidence on the Bioavailability of Food Bioactive Peptides
Amigo, L., & Hernández-Ledesma, B. (2020) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules25194479 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
“Moreover, they require the programming of the major parameters based on in vivo data to accurately simulate in vivo digestion conditions [56,77].”
BackgroundRe-thinking functional food development through a holistic approach
Alongi, M., & Anese, M. (2021) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2021.104466 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Edible mushrooms as a novel protein source for functional foods
González, A., Cruz, M., Losoya‐Sifuentes, C., Nobre, C., Loredo‐Treviño, A., Rodriguez, R. W., Contreras, J. C., & Belmares, R. E. (2020) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d0fo01746a · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Advances in edible nanoemulsions: Digestion, bioavailability, and potential toxicity
McClements, D. J. (2020) · Progress in Lipid Research · doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2020.101081 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Protein digestion of different protein sources using the INFOGEST static digestion model
Sousa, R., Portmann, R., Dubois, S., Recio, I., & Egger, L. (2020) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2020.108996 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, Q. R., Zhou, Y., Yue, W., Qin, W., Dong, H., & Vasanthan, T. (2021) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.026 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Targeted Delivery of Probiotics: Perspectives on Research and Commercialization
Yoha, K. S., Nida, S., Dutta, S., Moses, J. A., & Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2021) · Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins · doi:10.1007/s12602-021-09791-7 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Yang, J., Wen, C., Duan, Y., Deng, Q., Peng, D., Zhang, H., & Ma, H. (2021) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2021.09.025 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Ketnawa, S., Reginio, F. C., Thuengtung, S., & Ogawa, Y. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1878100 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Vinarov, Z., Abrahamsson, B., Artursson, P., Batchelor, H. K., Berben, P., Bernkop‐Schnürch, A., Butler, J., Ceulemans, J., Davies, N. M., Dupont, D., et al. (2021) · Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.addr.2021.02.001 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationMicroencapsulating Alginate-Based Polymers for Probiotics Delivery Systems and Their Application
Wang, X., Gao, S.-K., Yun, S., Zhang, M., Peng, L., Li, Y., & Zhou, Y. (2022) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph15050644 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Milk protein coagulation under gastric conditions: A review
Huppertz, T., & Chia, L. W. (2021) · International Dairy Journal · doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104882 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Small intestine vs. colon ecology and physiology: Why it matters in probiotic administration
Jensen, B. A. H., Heyndrickx, M., Jonkers, D. M. A. E., Mackie, A. R., Millet, S., Naghibi, M., Pærregaard, S. I., Pot, B., Saulnier, D. M. A., Sina, C., et al. (2023) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101190 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationApplications of the INFOGEST In Vitro Digestion Model to Foods: A Review
Zhou, H., Tan, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2022) · Annual Review of Food Science and Technology · doi:10.1146/annurev-food-060721-012235 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Trust your gut: Bioavailability and bioaccessibility of dietary compounds
Rodrigues, D. B., Marques, M. C., Hacke, A., Filho, P. S. L., Cazarin, C. B. B., & Mariutti, L. R. B. (2022) · Current Research in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.crfs.2022.01.002 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Besides the static and semi-dynamic methods, in vitro digestion can be conducted by using dynamic models in either mono- or multi-compartmental configurations that take advantage of the automatized regulation of the flux of simulated digestive fluids, enzymes, and pH adjustments (Dupont et al., 2019).”
MethodKårlund, A., Gómez-Gallego, C., Korhonen, J., Palo-oja, O.-M., El-Nezami, H. S., & Kolehmainen, M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12041020 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“More sophisticated dynamic models for simulations of human gastrointestinal system have also been developed [73].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStarch structure and nutritional functionality – Past revelations and future prospects
Junejo, S. A., Flanagan, B. M., Zhang, B., & Dhital, S. (2021) · Carbohydrate Polymers · doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118837 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Mechanisms, physiology, and recent research progress of gastric emptying
Liu, W., Jin, Y., Wilde, P. J., Hou, Y., Wang, Y., & Han, J. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1784841 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“…of food samples in these models can be observed at different time intervals during the digestion process, such as viscosity and particle size, and the formation and diffusion of colloids, and changes in nutritional components at different stages of digestion can be estimated (Dupont et al. 2019).”
BackgroundMulet-Cabero, A.-I., Torcello‐Gómez, A., Saha, S., Mackie, A. R., Wilde, P. J., & Brodkorb, A. (2020) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126514 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationJi, H., Hu, J., Zuo, S., Zhang, S., Li, M., & Nie, S. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1884841 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“Although the in vivo trials can get the direct impacts of food on human health, there may have some problems in time-consuming, individual differences, ethics, and etc. (Dupont et al. 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialBarajas-Álvarez, P., González‐Ávila, M., & Espinosa‐Andrews, H. (2021) · Food Reviews International · doi:10.1080/87559129.2021.1928691 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
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Self-citationEffect of processing on in vitro digestibility (IVPD) of food proteins
Orlien, V., Aalaei, K., Poojary, M. M., Nielsen, D. S., Ahrné, L., & Ruiz, J. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1980763 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Nicolescu, A., Babotă, M., Barros, L., Rocchetti, G., Lucini, L., Tănase, C., Mocan, A., Bunea, C. I., & Crișan, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1184535 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“Considering the necessity to continuously develop these techniques, future models might include the microbiota present in the small intestine (36).”
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“Dynamic models are also most common to simulate real system more accurately where the conditions in each gastrointestinal region are varied over time [36].”
Verhoeckx, K. C. M., Bøgh, K. L., Dupont, D., Egger, L., Gadermaier, G., Larré, C., Mackie, A. R., Ménard, O., Adel‐Patient, K., Picariello, G., et al. (2019) · Food and Chemical Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.052 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“available to control the digestive process (Dupont et al., 2018).”
Self-citationNadia, J., Bronlund, J., Singh, R., Singh, H., & Bornhorst, G. (2021) · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12749 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationNondairy Probiotic Products: Functional Foods That Require More Attention
Küçükgöz, K., & Trząskowska, M. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14040753 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
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Advances in static in vitro digestion models after the COST action Infogest consensus protocol
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Simulating human gastrointestinal motility in dynamic in vitro models
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Understanding protein digestion in infants and the elderly: Current in vitro digestion models
Lee, S., Jo, K., Jeong, H. G., Choi, Y.-S., Yong, H., & Jung, S. (2021) · Critical reviews in food science and nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1957765 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Xavier, A. A. O., & Mariutti, L. R. B. (2021) · Current Opinion in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.cofs.2021.08.002 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
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Bioavailability of Anthocyanins: Whole Foods versus Extracts
Kumkum, R., Aston‐Mourney, K., McNeill, B. A., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16101403 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“These models incorporate continuous peristaltic contractions, enzymes, and digestive juice secretions and maintain appropriate pH, time, and temperature [49–51].”
BackgroundSafety and fate of nanomaterials in food: The role of in vitro tests
Xavier, M., Parente, I. A., Rodrigues, P. M., Cerqueira, M. Â., Pastrana, L. M., & Gonçalves, C. (2021) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.050 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Wu, P., & Chen, X. D. (2019) · Current Opinion in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.cofs.2019.12.004 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Dima, C. V., Assadpour, E., Nechifor, A., Dima, Ş., Li, Y., & Jafari, S. M. (2023) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2199861 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…in vitro dynamic models contain a single compartment capable of simulating either only gastric conditions (Dynamic gastric model-DGM, Human gastric digestion simulator-GDS), or only fermentation conditions in the large intestine (TIM-2 and Artificial colon -ARCOL) (Dupont et al. 2019; Sensoy 2021).”
Peruzzolo, M., Ceni, G. C., Junges, A., Zeni, J., Cansian, R. L., & Backes, G. T. (2025) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2025.106253 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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SoGut: A Soft Robotic Gastric Simulator
Dang, Y., Liu, Y., Hashem, R., Bhattacharya, D., Allen, J. E., Stommel, M., Cheng, L. K., & Xu, W. (2020) · Soft Robotics · doi:10.1089/soro.2019.0136 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“10,14,15 This class of simulator has two main practical applications: (1) to advance the investigation of the in vivo digestion process of food and drugs 16,17 and (2) to promote the development of new technologies such as stomach pacemakers 18,19 and microrobots that are working in the human…”
Dantas, A. M., Fernandes, F. G., Magnani, M., et al. (2023) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112920 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Current status in our understanding of physicochemical basis of bioaccessibility
McClements, D. J., & Peng, S. (2019) · Current Opinion in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.cofs.2019.11.005 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Addressing various challenges related to food bolus and nutrition with the AM2 mastication simulator
Peyron, M., Santé-Lhoutellier, V., Dardevet, D. P., Hennèquin, M., Rémond, D., François, O., & Woda, A. (2019) · Food Hydrocolloids · doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105229 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
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“other artificial gut systems are also available (Dupont et al. 2019).”
BackgroundTài, N. V., Kunyanee, K., & Luangsakul, N. (2023) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods12193659 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Nutrients’ bio-accessibility and bioavailability have been predicted using dynamic models, which has been useful [32].”
MethodCurrent status of the gastrointestinal digestion effects on honey: A comprehensive review
Seraglio, S. K. T., Schulz, M., Gonzaga, L. V., et al. (2021) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129807 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
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Bringing the digestibility of prebiotics into focus: update of carbohydrate digestion models
Ferreira-Lazarte, Á., Moreno, F. J., & Villamiel, M. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1798344 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…gastrointestinal stages in a continuous flow represent the most advanced attempt at simulating interdependent physiological functions within the stomach lumen, small intestine and human gut (Molly, Vande Woestyne, and Verstraete 1993; Minekus et al. 1995; Barroso et al. 2015; Dupont et al. 2019).”
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Hybrid alternative protein-based foods: designing a healthier and more sustainable food supply
Kaplan, D. L., & McClements, D. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Science · doi:10.3389/fsci.2025.1599300 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In addition, more sophisticated dynamic in vitro digestion models are available to more realistically simulate the behavior of foods within the human gastrointestinal tract (109, 110).”
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“While the added value of in vitro gastrointestinal models is currently well-recognized [68], it is acknowledged that they mimic only partly the complexity of the gut ecosystem.”
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“The main advantage of the HGS system is that a more practical and persistent simulation of gastric peristalsis in comparison to DGM and TIM is provided (Table III).”
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“Ideally, in vivo studies using humans provide the best evidence for measuring bioaccessibility; however, human studies are costly, lengthy, have small sample sizes, and are restricted by ethical parameters [83,84].”
BackgroundA miniaturised semi-dynamic in-vitro model of human digestion
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“Recent reviews have also discuss the ability and limits of both static [46] and dynamic [47] in vitro experiments to reproduce in vivo observations.”
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- Authors
- Dupont, D., Alric, M., Blanquet-Diot, S., Bornhorst, G., Cueva, C., Deglaire, A., Denis, S., Ferrua, M., Havenaar, R., Lelieveld, J., Mackie, A. R., Marzorati, M., Menard, O., Minekus, M., Miralles, B., Recio, I., & Van den Abbeele, P.
- Affiliations
- Institut Agro Rennes-Angers (FR)
- Université Clermont Auvergne (FR)
- Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Fonterra (New Zealand) (NZ)
- Triskelion, Zeist, The Netherlands
- University of Leeds (GB)
- Ghent University (BE)
- INRA Agrocampus Ouest, STLO, Rennes, France
- ProDigest BVBA, Gent, Belgium
- Corresponding author
- Dupont, D.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2018-01-23
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1546-1562
- ISSN
- 1040-8398 (ISSN-L)
- 1549-7852
- OpenAlex
- W2789386374
- Semantic Scholar
- 6214d2a33898583215c63c2e095f1c86b1a8aab5
- Cited by
- 345
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 3.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Food composition and properties
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Digestive system and related health
- Keywords
- gastrointestinal tract simulation, food digestion, digestive enzymes, pH control, food flows
- MeSH terms
- Nutrients, Animals, Digestion, Fermentation, Food, Humans, Hydrogen-Ion Concentration, Models, Biological, Biomimetics, Gastrointestinal Tract, In Vitro Techniques
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