The Contributions of Strategy Use to Working Memory Span: A Comparison of Strategy Assessment Methods
Abstract
In two experiments, we tested whether individual differences in strategy production account for individual differences in performance on a working memory span task. We measured the strategies used during a standard experimenter-paced operation span (OSPAN) task by having participants make both set-by-set reports of strategy use for individual item sets and global reports of strategy use. In Experiment 1, although normatively effective strategies were self-reported on only a small proportion of OSPAN sets, individual differences in effective strategy use correlated with span performance. Experiment 2 replicated this outcome using a sample of 100 participants but, as important, it demonstrated that individual differences in effective strategy use did not mediate the relationship between OSPAN and measures of verbal ability. Discussion focuses on the interpretation of strategy–span relationships and the relative utility of general reports of strategy use versus the set-by-set reports introduced here for the OSPAN task.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Use of internally generated strategies as measured by self-reports has been found to be related to better complex span performance in several studies.
“Besides practice with an externally provided strategy, also the use of internally generated strategies as measured by self-reports has been found to be related to better complex span performance in several studies9,10,14–16.”
From The early effects of external and internal strategies on working memory updating training (2018) · cites this paper as [15]
The present results using the n-back paradigm align well with previous findings that explicit WM strategy instruction can be effective and that self-generated WM strategies are associated with higher task performance.
“The present results using the n-back paradigm align well with previous findings mainly from complex span studies that have indicated that explicit WM strategy instruction can be effective10–13, and that self-generated WM strategies are associated with higher task performance9,10,14–16.”
From The early effects of external and internal strategies on working memory updating training (2018) · cites this paper as [15]
Cites
The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Salthouse, T. A. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403 · Cited by 5,568 · cited 2× · see citing works
“According to this alternative, differences in span performance are assumed to result from variability in the algorithms, or strategies, that individuals use while performing span tasks; moreover, the power of WM span tasks to predict variation in complex cognitive abilities may also derive from individual differences…”
BackgroundThe Psychology of Learning and Motivation
(2021) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(21)x0002-3 · Cited by 5,081 · see citing works
Ericsson (1993) · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.87.3.215 · Cited by 4,539 · see citing works
Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data
Danks, J. H., Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1985) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422516 · Cited by 4,452 · see citing works
Book Review: Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data
Venkatesan, M., Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1986) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151491 · Cited by 4,361 · see citing works
Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196772 · Cited by 2,882 · see citing works
Self-citationModels of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999) · Cited by 2,404 · see citing works
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189 · Cited by 1,679 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis
Daneman, M., & Merikle, P. M. (1996) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03214546 · Cited by 1,432 · see citing works
Buchbesprechungen / Book Reviews
Förstl, H. (2006) · Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1661-4747.54.1.68a · Cited by 1,307 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005 · Cited by 1,223 · see citing works
Self-citationEngle, R. W., Kane, M. J., & Tuholski, S. W. (1999) · Models of Working Memory · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909.007 · Cited by 1,195 · see citing works
Self-citationExecutive Attention, Working Memory Capacity, and a Two-Factor Theory of Cognitive Control
Engle, R. W., & Kane, M. J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)44005-x · Cited by 1,104 · see citing works
Self-citationCowan, N. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315625560 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
(1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174909 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
Cowan, N. (2010) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203342398 · Cited by 713 · see citing works
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.26.2.336 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
Self-citationIndividual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses.
Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.5.972 · Cited by 626 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses.
Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.18.5.972 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
Working memory span and the role of proactive interference.
Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.130.2.199 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.26.2.336 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Self-citationBinding and Inhibition in Working Memory: Individual and Age Differences in Short-Term Recognition.
Oberauer, K. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.3.368 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
The role of interference in memory span
May, C. P., Hasher, L., & Kane, M. J. (1999) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198529 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory span and the role of proactive interference.
Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.199 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and strategy use
McNamara, D. S., & Scott, J. L. (2001) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195736 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Strategy training and working memory task performance
Turley-Ames, K. (2003) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/s0749-596x(03)00095-0 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
The capacity theory of sentence comprehension: Critique of Just and Carpenter (1992).
Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. N. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.4.761 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
The reading span test and its predictive power for reading comprehension ability
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.03.008 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Generality and modifiability of working memory among skilled and less skilled readers.
Swanson, H. L. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.473 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Dunlosky, J. T., & Hertzog, C. K. (2001) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03194918 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citationBaddeley, A. (2000) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195122657.003.0005 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Darling, S. (2016) · The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology · doi:10.4135/9781483346274.n291 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Pons, F., & de Rosnay, M. (2000) · Swiss Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1024//1421-0185.59.3.215 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Aging, Attributions, Perceived Control, and Strategy Use in a Free Recall Task
Hertzog, C. K., McGuire, C. L., & Lineweaver, T. T. (1998) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1076/anec.5.2.85.601 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Causes and constraints of the shift-to-easier-materials effect in the control of study
Dunlosky, J. T., & Thiede, K. W. (2004) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195868 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Self-citationPictures, partial pictures, and young children's oral prose learning.
Guttmann, J., Levin, J. R., & Pressley, M. G. (1977) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.69.5.473 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Short-term memory, verbal competence, and age as predictors of imagery instructional effectiveness
Pressley, M. G., Cariglia-Bull, T., Deane, S., & Schneider, W. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(87)90059-2 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Pressley, M. G., & Levin, J. R. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(77)90019-4 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Harris, J. L., & Qualls, C. D. (2000) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/026870300401289 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Air Force Officer Qualifying Test (AFOQT) Form P: Test Manual
Berger, F. R., Gupta, W. B., Berger, R. M., & Skinner, J. (1990) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e530272006-001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Acquisition and Transfer of an Integrative Imagery Strategy by Young Children
Ryan, E. B., Ledger, G. W., & Weed, K. A. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1987.tb01392.x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Acquisition and Transfer of an Integrative Imagery Strategy by Young Children
Ryan, E. B., Ledger, G. W., & Weed, K. A. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130521 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory
Peng, P., Barnes, M., Wang, C., Wang, W., Li, S., Swanson, H. L., Dardick, W., & Tao, S. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000124 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span
Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Farrell, S., Jarrold, C., & Greaves, M. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
“In a previous modeling study, we found that even in the context of a decay-based model, rehearsal can be detrimental rather than beneficial (Oberauer & Lewandowsky, 2008). rehearsal, more elaborate strategies are associated with better performance (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Kaakinen & Hyönä, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodEffects and mechanisms of working memory training: a review
von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-013-0524-6 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
“Finally, we summarize the findings revealed by existing training studies for each of these factors, and thereby present a roadmap for accumulating further empirical evidence regarding the efficacy of working memory training in a systematic way.”
BackgroundMethodUsing Animated Augmented Reality to Cognitively Guide Assembly
Hou, L., Wang, X., Bernold, L. E., & Love, P. E. D. (2013) · Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)cp.1943-5487.0000184 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Predicting key educational outcomes in academic trajectories: a machine-learning approach
Musso, M., Rodríguez-Hernández, C. F., & Cascallar, E. C. (2020) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00520-7 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“Students with high WMC can maintain more activated information and apply effectively learning strategies according to a specific learning goal (Dunlosky and Kane 2007; Dunlosky and Thiede 2004; Dunning and Holmes 2014).”
BackgroundThe role of attention control in complex real-world tasks
Draheim, C., Pak, R., Draheim, A. A., & Engle, R. W. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-02052-2 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Does working memory training promote the use of strategies on untrained working memory tasks?
Dunning, D. L., & Holmes, J. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0410-5 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
What is attentional refreshing in working memory?
Camos, V., Johnson, M. R., Loaiza, V. M., Portrat, S., Souza, A. S., & Vergauwe, E. (2018) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13616 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Why does working memory span predict complex cognition? Testing the strategy affordance hypothesis
Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., & Kane, M. J. (2008) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.36.8.1383 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Following the final trial, the participants completed retrospective set-by-set strategy reports created by Dunlosky and Kane (2007). The stimuli from each trial were re-presented together on-screen (including all of the equations and words), and the participants indicated which strategy they had used to remember the w…”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationBartsch, L. M., Singmann, H., & Oberauer, K. (2018) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-018-0805-9 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Working Memory, Strategy Knowledge, and Strategy Instruction in Children With Reading Disabilities
Swanson, H. L., Kehler, P., & Jerman, O. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409338743 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“No doubt, the study would have benefited from procedures that use step-by-step strategy reports to validate strategy use (e.g., Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
MethodDoes differential strategy use account for age-related deficits in working-memory performance?
Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J. T., & Hertzog, C. K. (2009) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0014078 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Making these strategy reports during the task has had a minimal reactive effect on reported strategies and on task performance (Dunlosky & Hertzog, 2001; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
InfluentialSelf-citationNash Unsworth, A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000148 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“Along with prior research, these results suggest that during item presentation WMC is needed to select and implement effective encoding strategies (e.g., Bailey et al., 2008; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Unsworth & Spillers, 2010).”
BackgroundResultRehearsal in serial recall: An unworkable solution to the nonexistent problem of decay.
Lewandowsky, S., & Oberauer, K. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0039684 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Nash Unsworth, A., & Spillers, G. J. (2010) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.17.2.200 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Variation in strategy use across measures of verbal working memory
Morrison, A. B., Rosenbaum, G. M., Fair, D. A., & Chein, J. M. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0608-9 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“However, while others have found performance to be contingent on the choice of strategy (Bailey et al., 2011; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Friedman & Miyake, 2004), we did not find that performance within any of the tasks varied as a function of strategy use.”
InfluentialThe early effects of external and internal strategies on working memory updating training
Laine, M., Fellman, D., Waris, O., & Nyman, T. J. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22396-5 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Peng, P., & Fuchs, D. (2017) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219415594609 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“…that strategy use accounts for a reliable proportion of variance in WM performance, with stronger performance associated with more frequent use of strategies or use of more effective strategies (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Friedman & Miyake, 2004; McNamara & Scott, 2001; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003).”
Is Rehearsal an Effective Maintenance Strategy for Working Memory?
Oberauer, K. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.06.002 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Strategy use in the reading span test: An analysis of eye movements and reported encoding strategies
Kaakinen, J. K., & Hyönä, J. (2007) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701457096 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Efficient strategies include either semantic elaboration or visual imagery of the TBR words, whereas simple phonological rehearsal of the TBR words is regarded as a less efficient strategy (Dunlosky & Kane, in press ; Friedman & Miyake, 2004 ; McNamara & Scott, 2001 ; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003 ).”
MethodWhichever way you Choose to Categorize, Working Memory Helps you Learn
Craig, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2011) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.608854 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“As WMC has previously been linked to strategy choice (Bailey et al., 2008; Cokely et al., 2006; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003; Unsworth & Spillers, 2010), we expected at the outset that WMC might also predict strategy choice on categorization tasks.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe role of strategy use in working memory training outcomes
Fellman, D., Jylkkä, J., Waris, O., Soveri, A., Ritakallio, L., Haga, S., Salmi, J., Nyman, T. J., & Laine, M. (2020) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2019.104064 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2010) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374748-8.00001-9 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Miller, A. L., Gross, M. P., & Nash Unsworth, A. (2018) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.09.005 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Loaiza, V. M., & McCabe, D. P. (2012) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2012.738289 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…we presented each trial in its entirety on the screen and asked participants to select among the six strategy types they had used to try to remember the words, with no instruction as to whether the strategies were considered effective or ineffective (Bailey et al., 2009; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodTrumbo, M., Matzen, L. E., Coffman, B. A., Hunter, M. A., Jones, A. P., Robinson, C. S. H., & Clark, V. P. (2016) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.10.011 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Hutchinson, R. S., & Eardley, A. F. (2021) · Museum Management and Curatorship · doi:10.1080/09647775.2021.1891563 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Jones, J. S., Milton, F., Mostazir, M., & Adlam, A. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12870 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“One theory suggests that high working memory capacity affords the production and implementation of effortful and effective strategies on cognitively demanding tasks (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
Individual differences in working memory predict the effect of music on student performance.
Christopher, E. A., & Shelton, J. T. (2017) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.01.012 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Additionally, we sought to replicate the general finding of a relationship between WMC and metacognitive abilities (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
Does articulatory rehearsal help immediate serial recall?
Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2018) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2018.09.002 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Contribution of strategy use to performance on complex and simple span tasks
Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J. T., & Kane, M. J. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0034-3 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“To measure strategy production, we recommend using the current set-by-set reports because they (1) are reliable and valid, (2) are easy to collect and to objectively analyze and (3) have greater specificity than more global-report measures (for further details, see Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
InfluentialSelf-citationStrategy mediation in working memory training in younger and older adults
Forsberg, A., Fellman, D., Laine, M., Johnson, W., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820915107 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The non-strategic nature of linguistic long-term memory effects in verbal short-term memory
Kowialiewski, B., & Majerus, S. (2018) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.03.005 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Musso, M., Boekaerts, M., Segers, M., & Cascallar, E. C. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.03.003 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
The Many Facets of Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity
Nash Unsworth, A. (2016) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2016.03.001 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Gonthier, C., & Thomassin, N. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000101 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Does Strategy Training Reduce Age-Related Deficits in Working Memory?
Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2014) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000356699 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of elaboration on working memory and long-term memory across age
Bartsch, L. M., & Oberauer, K. (2021) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2020.104215 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
The influence of strategies on relationships between working memory and cognitive skills
Clair‐Thompson, H. S. (2007) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701261845 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Working Memory and Intelligence
Conway, A. R. A., Getz, S. J., Macnamara, B. N., & de Abreu, P. E. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977244.021 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Dissociating refreshing and elaboration and their impacts on memory
Bartsch, L. M., Loaiza, V. M., Jäncke, L., Oberauer, K., & Lewis‐Peacock, J. A. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.06.028 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Aubry, A., Gonthier, C., & Bourdin, B. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103358 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“In addition, the use of memory strategies also contributes to working memory capacity (Bailey et al., 2011; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007), and gifted children tend to use more effective strategies than nongifted children (Gaultney et al., 1996; Harnishfeger & Bjorklund, 1994).”
Metacognitive monitoring and strategic behaviour in working memory performance
Touron, D. R., Oransky, N. A., Meier, M. E., & Hines, J. C. (2009) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210903418937 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Study effort and the memory cost of external store availability
Kelly, M. O., & Risko, E. F. (2022) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105228 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Assecondi, S., Hu, R., Eskes, G. A., Pan, X., Zhou, J., & Shapiro, K. L. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84298-3 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Kyndt, E., Cascallar, E. C., & Dochy, F. J. R. C. (2011) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-011-9493-0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“This latter result is in line with the results of recent research that found that high WMC students report using better learning strategies on various memory tasks (Dunlosky and Kane 2007; Unsworth and Spillers 2010) and therefore avoiding mere rote learning associated with a surface approach.”
ResultKızılaslan, A., & TUNAGÜR, M. (2021) · Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.24106/kefdergi.741028 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
McHaney, J. R., Tessmer, R., Roark, C. L., & Chandrasekaran, B. (2021) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105010 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Does semantic long-term memory impact refreshing in verbal working memory?
Camos, V., Mora, G., Oftinger, A.-L., Elsig, S. M., Schneider, P., & Vergauwe, E. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000657 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Metacognitive monitoring in visuospatial working memory.
Thomas, A. K., Bonura, B. M., Taylor, H. A., & Brunyé, T. T. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0028556 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Even though research has demonstrated that people who report using specific strategies have better working memory ability (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Miyake, Friedman, Rettinger, Shah, & Hegarty, 2001; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003), few studies have examined whether participants can metacognitively…”
BackgroundMemory Self-Efficacy and Memory Performance in Older Adults
Beaudoin, M., & Desrichard, O. (2016) · Swiss Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000188 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Retrospective self-reports are often used in the literature on strategy use (e.g., Hertzog et al., 1998, 2010) and there is evidence to support their convergent validity with concurrent reports (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
MethodNo Evidence That Articulatory Rehearsal Improves Complex Span Performance
Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2020) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.103 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Nichols, T. T., Gates, K. M., Molenaar, P. C. M., & Wilson, S. J. (2013) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12060 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“In the absence of the ability to elucidate sources for these individual differences, we can speculate that they may relate to the cognitive strategies used to complete the task (cf. Dunlosky & Kane 2007).”
Individual differences in spontaneous analogical transfer
Kubricht, J., Lu, H., & Holyoak, K. J. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0687-7 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…may facilitate spontaneous analogical transfer is consistent with recent evidence that fluid intelligence as measured by the Raven’s Matrices test yields benefits that are largely mediated by the use of effective cognitive strategies (Gonthier & Thomassin, 2015; see also Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
Working memory capacity and strategy use on the RAPM
Jarosz, A. F., Raden, M. J., & Wiley, J. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101387 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Learning through assessment: An approach towards Self-Directed Learning
Annandale, M., Belkasim, S. O., Bunt, B. J., Chahine, I., Beer, J. J. D., Jacobson, T., Jagals, D., Kamanga, E. H., Mackey, T. P., Olivier, J., et al. (2021) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2021.bk280 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The role of working memory in achievement goal pursuit
Avery, R. E., Smillie, L. D., & de Fockert, J. W. (2013) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.07.012 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Dunlosky and Kane (2007) found that the proportion of task sets on a span task”
BackgroundCharting the Diversity of Strategic Processes in Visuospatial Short-Term Memory
Gonthier, C. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620950697 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Almost all strategies reviewed here are represented: These words can be grouped or chunked together; a sentence can be formed to link all words together, which can be viewed as a form of holistic encoding; and the words can be subdivided into categories (see, e.g., Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodElaborative strategies contribute to the long-term benefits of time in working memory
Loaiza, V. M., & Lavilla, E. T. (2020) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2020.104205 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Effects of execution duration on within-item strategy switching in young and older adults
Ardiale, É., & Lemaire, P. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.789854 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…in a wide variety of cognitive domains, including memory (e.g., Taconnat, Clarys, Vanneste, Bouazzaoui, & Isingrini, 2006), working memory (e.g., Dunlosky & Kane, 2007), decision making (e.g., Mata, Schooler, & Rieskamp, 2007), or language comprehension (e.g., Kail, Lemaire, & Lecacheur, 2012).”
Coalson, G. A., & Byrd, C. T. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0188111 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“As noted by Dunlosky and Kane [73], retroactive free-recall of strategy use during working memory tasks is prone to several caveats.”
BackgroundIndividual differences in encoding strategies and free recall dynamics
Nash Unsworth, A., Miller, A. L., & Robison, M. K. (2019) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021819847441 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The influence of domain knowledge on the functional capacity of working memory
Ricks, T. R., & Wiley, J. (2009) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.07.007 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“These improved span scores do not represent an increase in general attentional capacity, but rather an increase in immediate memory that is specific to performing domain-related tasks when participants have awareness that they possess relevant prior knowledge (cf Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003).”
BackgroundRevisiting the attentional demands of rehearsal in working-memory tasks
Thalmann, M., Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2018) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.005 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Working memory assessment: Construct validity of the Brown-Peterson Test.
Geurten, M., Vincent, É., der Linden, M. V., Coyette, F., & Meulemans, T. (2016) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000057 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…strategies that will help them to retain the three consonants during the delay interval (for studies demonstrating the influence of strategies on memory pe formance, see Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Geurten, Catale, & Meulemans, 2015; Geurten, Lejeune, & Meulemans, 2015; McNamara & Scott, 2001).”
BackgroundJarrold, C. (2016) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2016.1213869 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…(Bebko, McMorris, Metcalfe, Ricciuti, & Goldstein, 2014; Schneider, 1985), it is also possible that the appropriate implementation of rehearsal requires top-down strategic control, at least among children (St Clair-Thompson, Stevens, Hunt, & Bolder, 2010) if not in adults (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
BackgroundStrategies, debates, and adversarial collaboration in working memory: The 51st Bartlett Lecture
Logie, R. H. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231194037 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…combinations of cognitive functions for the same task on different trials or under different experimental conditions (e.g., Bailey et al., 2009; Belletier et al., 2023; Brébion et al., 1997; Brown et al., 2006; Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Logie et al., 1996; Morrison et al., 2016; Siegler, 1987).”
BackgroundSpontaneous strategy use during a working memory updating task
Waris, O., Jylkkä, J., Fellman, D., & Laine, M. (2020) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103211 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Working memory and fluid intelligence: A multi-mechanism view
Conway, A. R. A., Macnamara, B. N., Getz, S. J., & de Abreu, P. E. (2011) · Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Luxembourg) · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Task experience and children's working memory performance: A perspective from recall timing.
Towse, J. N., Cowan, N., Horton, N. J., & Whytock, S. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.695 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Therriault, D. J., Redifer, J. L., Lee, C. S., & Wang, Y. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3078 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Although we know that WM influences students’ choice of strategies during academic tasks (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Schelble, Therriault, & Miller, 2012), its impact on non-academic choices remains unexplored.”
BackgroundPriming performance-related concerns induces task-related mind-wandering
Jordano, M. L., & Touron, D. R. (2017) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2017.08.002 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Participants may adopt either effective or ineffective strategies when completing the OSPAN (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
MethodAge-Related Changes in Verbal Working Memory Strategies
Chevalère, J., Lemaire, P., & Camos, V. (2020) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2020.1716152 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Based on previous works by Dunlosky and Kane (2007), the first two strategies were coupled into the “normatively less effective strategies” category and the last three strategies into a category called “normatively effective” strategies.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStrategic adaptation to dual-task in verbal working memory: Potential routes for theory integration.
Belletier, C., Doherty, J. M., Graham, A. J., Rhodes, S., Cowan, N., Naveh‐Benjamin, M., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., & Logie, R. H. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001106 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Attentional Control and Working Memory Capacity
Meier, M. E., & Kane, M. J. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118920497.ch3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Dunlosky and Kane (2007) found that, although subjects performed better on complex span tasks when using normatively effective strategies, strategy usage did not statistically mediate the relation between WMC and verbal ability. Strategy use mediated WMC–criterion associations only when the same strategies benefited W…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCharacterizing Strategy Use During the Performance of Hippocampal-Dependent Tasks
Clark, I. A., Monk, A. M., & Maguire, E. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02119 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…scenes (Roberts, 1968; Paivio, 1969; Boltwood and Blick, 1970; Bower, 1970; Stoff and Eagle, 1971; McDaniel and Kearney, 1984; Kroll et al., 1986; McDaniel and Einstein, 1986; Einstein and McDaniel, 1987; Marschark and Hunt, 1989; Logie et al., 1996; Hertzog et al., 1998; Dunlosky and Kane, 2007).”
Isolating Metamemory Deficits in the Self-Regulated Learning of Adults With ADHD
Knouse, L. E., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Dunlosky, J. T. (2011) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054711417231 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Second, deficits in central executive working memory functioning (Rapport et al., 2008) may reduce the likelihood that an adult with ADHD will be able to keep key task parameters in mind when forming a study plan that includes appropriate strategies (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBartsch, L. M., Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001370 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Bailey, H. R. (2012) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.06.004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Sobrinho, N. D., & Souza, A. S. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0001071 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Working memory and science education: exploring the compatibility of theoretical approaches
Clair‐Thompson, H. S., & Botton, C. (2009) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140902853616 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Far-Transfer Effects of Strategy-Based Working Memory Training
Chan, S., Mueller, U., & Masson, M. E. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01285 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
That person is now with or without a mask: how encoding context modulates identity recognition
Garcia‐Marques, T., Oliveira, M., & Nunes, L. (2022) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-022-00379-5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…can exercise strategic control over encoding and recall processes (for a review, see Tullis & Benjamin, 2015,) and adapt their encoding strategies to what they anticipate encountering in the test phase (Benjamin, 2007; Dunlosky and Kane, 2007; Finley et al., 2010; Serra & Metcalfe, 2009).”
BackgroundThomassin, N., Gonthier, C., Guerraz, M., & Roulin, J. (2014) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000276 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Comparison of fMRI paradigms assessing visuospatial processing: Robustness and reproducibility
Schuster, V., Herholz, P., Zimmermann, K. M., Westermann, S., Frässle, S., & Jansen, A. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186344 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“These differences are thus likely to relate to other factors such as distinct cognitive strategies [47], inter-subject variability in the BOLD signal [48–50], or variability in neuroanatomy [51].”
BackgroundSastoque, L. G., Isingrini, M. L., Angel, L., Fay, S., Taconnat, L., & Bouazzaoui, B. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale · doi:10.1037/cep0000240 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Effects of working memory intervention on language production by individuals with dementia
Lee, M. S., & Kim, B. S. (2020) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2020.1789479 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“For example, strategies for a particular paradigm, such as n-back or complex span tasks, can be learned (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007).”
MethodHart, R., Logie, R. H., & Brown, L. A. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241284414 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Spontaneous memory strategies in a videogame simulating everyday memory tasks
Laine, M., Jylkkä, J., Ritakallio, L., Eräste, T., Kangas, S., Hering, A., Zuber, S., Kliegel, M., Fellman, D., & Salmi, J. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231183958 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…performance measures for strategy users than non-users is in line with similar results obtained from the episodic memory and working memory domains (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Dunning & Holmes, 2014; Fellman et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2020; Laine et al., 2018; Malinovitch et al., 2021; McNamara &…”
MethodResultStrategies in visuospatial working memory for learning virtual shapes
Smith, G., Ritzhaupt, A. D., & Tjoe, E. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1620 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Amzil, A. (2022) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v11n6p133 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In other words, working memory span is higher for individuals who reported using higher cognitive monitoring strategies (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003).”
BackgroundStrategy use and its evolvement in word list learning: a replication study
Laine, M., Fellman, D., Eräste, T., Ritakallio, L., & Salmi, J. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.230651 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Strategic Insight and Age-Related Goal-Neglect Influence Risky Decision-Making
Westbrook, A., Martins-Klein, B., Yarkoni, T., & Braver, T. S. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00068 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…of cognitive domains (Hartley and Anderson, 1986; McNamara and Scott, 2001; Saczynski et al., 2002; Touron and Hertzog, 2004; Paxton et al., 2006; Dunlosky and Kane, 2007), and spontaneous adaptive strategy shifts have been observed in risky decisionmaking contexts (Mata et al., 2007, 2010).”
BackgroundWorking Memory Capacity and Self‐Explanation Strategy Use Provide Additive Problem‐Solving Benefits
Redifer, J. L., Therriault, D. J., Lee, C. S., & Schroeder, A. N. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3219 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kanerva, K., & Kalakoski, V. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3243 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Immediate and long-term memory and their relation to crystallized and fluid intelligence
Martinez, D. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101382 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Individual differences in strategy use in the Japanese Reading Span Test
Endo, K., & Osaka, M. (2012) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.82.554 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…題や作業の遂行に関わる，アクティブな短期記憶であ り，この記憶を制御する注意の実行系を有するもので ある。ワーキングメモリは，制約された容量の中で， かつ制約された時間内で，情報の処理と保持を行うも のであり，われわれの日常生活を支えるª脳のメモ 帳«の役割を担っている。処理すべき情報が過負荷と なり，脳のメモ帳から情報がオーバーフローすると， 物忘れや行為のし忘れ，ヒューマンエラーなど，一時 的な注意制御の機能不全を引き起こす。この機能には 個人差・年齢差の影響が大きいことが知られている （苧阪，2008）。 このワーキングメモリの個人差を測定するテストと…”
InfluentialIf God Handed Us the Ground-Truth Theory of Memory, How Would We Recognize It?Preprint
Popov, V. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ay5cm · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Clark, I. A., & Maguire, E. A. (2023) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-023-02449-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…in terms of their modality, including visual imagery and verbal strategies involving sentences or stories, and in their complexity, ranging from simple strategies like rote repetition to more complex strategies involving bizarre and distinct visual imagery and interactive visual scenes 33–39 .”
Ritakallio, L., Fellman, D., Jylkkä, J., Waris, O., Lönnroth, N., Nervander, R., Salmi, J., & Laine, M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00235-2 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Grouping or chunking represents a potentially more general strategy that can be applied in a more structured way in different memory tasks (Dunlosky & Kane, 2007; Jones, 1 3 2012), and it is not limited to verbal materials (Oberauer et al., 2018).”
MethodInfluential
- Authors
- Dunlosky, J., & Kane, M. J.
- Affiliations
- Kent State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dunlosky, John
- Kane, Michael J.
- Venue
- Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2007-09
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1227-1245
- ISSN
- 0033-555X (ISSN-L)
- 1747-0218
- 1747-0226
- OpenAlex
- W2068780666
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 6.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- working memory span, strategy use, operation span, individual differences, verbal ability
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Attention, Female, Humans, Individuality, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Reaction Time, Reading, Mental Recall, Thinking, Time Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
