Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Open accessAbstract
Working memory (WM) span tasks-and in particular, counting span, operation span, and reading span tasks-are widely used measures of WM capacity. Despite their popularity, however, there has never been a comprehensive analysis of the merits of WM span tasks as measurement tools. Here, we review the genesis of these tasks and discuss how and why they came to be so influential. In so doing, we address the reliability and validity of the tasks, and we consider more technical aspects of the tasks, such as optimal administration and scoring procedures. Finally, we discuss statistical and methodological techniques that have commonly been used in conjunction with WM span tasks, such as latent variable analysis and extreme-groups designs.
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Cognitively-informed executive function tests demonstrated superior predictive and ecological validity compared to informant-rated scales.
“Cognitively-informed executive function tests also demonstrated superior predictive and ecological validity compared to informant-rated scales.131”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
The VALIDITY section says working-memory span tasks predict performance on a range of cognitive tasks and have greater predictive validity than simple memory-span tasks. It does not compare cognitively informed executive-function tests with informant-rated scales or establish superior ecological validity. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe low working memory conditions control for encoding, because the high working memory conditions involve both encoding and working memory maintenance/recall.
“In other words, the low working memory conditions control for encoding, because the high working memory conditions involve both encoding and working memory maintenance/recall (29, 97).”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [97]
The 'Brief Theoretical Overview of WM and WMC' (page not provided) describes working memory as actively maintaining information, and the task descriptions discuss recall. But the paper does not establish that low-working-memory conditions control for encoding or that high conditions differ from them specifically by adding maintenance and recall. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIt states that no ADHD heterogeneity study had simultaneously measured and controlled all three primary executive functions, and single-task assessments may limit conclusions.
“no study of ADHD-related heterogeneity has simultaneously measured and controlled for all three primary executive functions (Miyake et al., 2000), and conclusions may be limited by the use of single tasks to assess neurocognitive construct(s) (Conway et al., 2005).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Conway et al., 2005
No study of ADHD-related heterogeneity has simultaneously measured and controlled for all three primary executive functions, and conclusions may be limited by using single tasks to assess neurocognitive constructs.
“As noted by Coghill et al. (2014), no study of ADHD-related heterogeneity has simultaneously measured and controlled for all three primary executive functions (Miyake et al., 2000), and conclusions may be limited by the use of single tasks to assess neurocognitive construct(s) (Conway et al., 2005).”
From Executive Functioning Heterogeneity in Pediatric ADHD (2019) · cites this paper as Conway et al., 2005
The proportion of stimuli correct per trial during recall phases of word span and stroop span tasks was used to assess working memory capacity as recommended.
“The proportion of stimuli correct per trial (% recalled correctly) during the recall phases of the word span and stroop span tasks was used to assess working memory capacity as recommended (29, 97).”
From Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions (2024) · cites this paper as [97]
Informant-rated scales capture only about 4% of shared variance with performance-based measures of the same executive function construct, leaving about 96% of a person's executive function abilities uncaptured.
“Stated differently, 96% of a person’s executive function abilities are not captured by informant-rated scales (.22 = 4% shared variance between informant-rated and performance-based methods for assessing the same construct)131.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
The Scoring and Reliability sections discuss correlations and measurement error in working-memory span tasks, not agreement between informant ratings and performance-based executive-function measures. Searches for informant ratings, questionnaires, and the claimed 4% shared variance found no passage addressing that comparison. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInformant-rated scales correlate at r≈.20 or lower with construct-valid, performance-based executive function tests.
“Informant-rated scales only correlate r≈.20 or lower with construct valid, performance-based executive function tests.131,135,138”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
The RELIABILITY and LATENT VARIABLE ANALYSIS passages report correlations among working-memory span tasks and between those tasks and Raven’s matrices. Our copy does not address correlations between informant-rated scales and performance-based executive-function tests; searches for informant ratings and questionnaire scales found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn children with ADHD, traditional scoring of the WISC-IV digit span backward subtest failed to predict working memory or achievement and showed moderate correspondence with fluid reasoning (general factor g).
“the results revealed that traditional scoring of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV digit span backward subtest (a commonly used task assumed to test working memory) failed to predict working memory or achievement and instead showed moderate correspondence with fluid reasoning (general factor g)131.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
The Scoring section (page unavailable) discusses traditional scoring of working-memory span tasks, and the WM Span Tasks Versus Other WM Tasks section discusses backward digit span. Neither reports WISC-IV digit span backward results in children with ADHD or the claimed relationships with working memory, achievement, and fluid reasoning. Searches for ADHD, WISC-IV, and those outcomes found no matching result in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSome popular informant-rated executive function rating scales have been criticized for being essentially recycled ADHD rating scales, with many items on at least some subscales being identical or nearly identical to DSM-5 ADHD symptom criteria.
“some popular informant-rated executive function rating scales have been criticized for being, essentially, recycled ADHD rating scales, with a majority of items on at least some subscales appearing identical, or nearly identical, to DSM-5 ADHD symptom criteria131,135,138.”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInformant-rated scales and performance-based executive function tests show non-significant to weak associations.
“However, these two measurement modalities have shown non-significant to weak associations.131,136–138”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
The SCORING section discusses correlations among ways of scoring working-memory tasks, and LATENT VARIABLE ANALYSIS reports correlations between working-memory measures and Raven’s task. Neither addresses associations between informant-rated scales and performance-based executive-function tests. Searches for informant ratings and behavioral rating scales found no relevant passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.73)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInformant-rated executive function rating scales cannot be used to assess neurocognitive abilities.
“Based on the current literature, our conclusion is that informant-rated executive function rating scales cannot be used to assess neurocognitive abilities”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [131]
The SCORING and VALIDITY sections discuss working-memory span tasks and their measurement properties, not informant-rated executive-function scales. Searches for informant ratings and whether such scales assess neurocognitive abilities found no passage addressing the claim; our copy therefore neither supports nor contradicts it. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredUCancellation is a timed selective-attention and concentration measure with validation against the D2 Test of Attention.
“A timed test of selective attention and concentration that has been validated against the D2 Test of Attention108,109.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [108]
The VALIDITY section discusses working-memory span tasks and their relationship to attention, not UCancellation. Searches for UCancellation, the D2 Test of Attention, and cancellation-test validation found no passage addressing the claimed measure or its validation; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children.
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Working memory, fluid intelligence, and impulsiveness in heavy media multitaskers
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Real-Time Strategy Game Training: Emergence of a Cognitive Flexibility Trait
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The smart potential behind probability matching
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Failure of Working Memory Training to Enhance Cognition or Intelligence
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Self-citationNIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB): List Sorting Test to Measure Working Memory
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Distinct transfer effects of training different facets of working memory capacity.
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A meta-analysis on verbal working memory in children and adolescents with ADHD
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Working memory and organizational skills problems in <scp>ADHD</scp>
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Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid?
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“Partial-credit unit scoring (i.e., stimuli correct per trial) was used to index overall working memory performance at each set size 3–6 was used as recommended (Conway et al., 2005).”
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Executive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD
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Memory control ability modulates intrusive memories after analogue trauma
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Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach
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“Partial-credit unit scoring (stimuli correct per trial) was used to derive performance estimates at each short-term memory load (set sizes of 3 to 6 items per trial) for each task as recommended (8 total variables: phonological memory loads 3–6, visuospatial memory loads 3–6; Conway et al., 2005).”
MethodStepankova, H., Lukavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopecek, M., Ripova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034913 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults
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Heterogeneity in ADHD: Neurocognitive predictors of peer, family, and academic functioning
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“…pervasive within neurocognitive measurement (Snyder, Miyake, & Hankin, 2015), we used a dimension reduction approach to isolate reliable variance associated with each neurocognitive construct and approximate the removal of all random and task-specific, nonconstruct error (Conway et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe structure of working memory and how it relates to intelligence in children
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How do scientific views change? Notes from an extended adversarial collaboration
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Does working memory training have to be adaptive?
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“…pediatric ADHD sample and used the Unsworth and Engle (2006) modifications to assess the construct and predictive validities of digit span backward (derived from WISC-IV) relative to criterion measures of working memory, academic achievement, and fluid intelligence (Conway et al., 2005).”
InfluentialAhmed, S. F., Ellis, A., Ward, K. P., Chaku, N., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2022) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0001396 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level?
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N-back Versus Complex Span Working Memory Training
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An Examination of Relations Among Working Memory, ADHD Symptoms, and Emotion Regulation
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The relationship among geometry, working memory, and intelligence in children
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Strategy use in the reading span test: An analysis of eye movements and reported encoding strategies
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Intact inner speech use in autism spectrum disorder: evidence from a short‐term memory task
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What cognitive processes are “sluggish” in sluggish cognitive tempo?
Kofler, M. J., Irwin, L. N., Sarver, D. E., Fosco, W. D., Miller, C. E., Spiegel, J. A., & Becker, S. P. (2019) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000446 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Stenfors, C. U. D., Marklund, P., Magnusson Hanson, L. L., Theorell, T., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083351 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Neurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: A Bayesian framework.
Kofler, M. J., Harmon, S. L., Aduen, P. A., Day, T. N., Austin, K. E., Spiegel, J. A., Irwin, L., & Sarver, D. E. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000416 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“The specificity of these effects may be limited, however, because the study failed to consider working memory’s interrelations with additional neurocognitive functions such as inhibitory control and processing speed, as well as potential differential effects of phonological (verbal) versus visuospatial (nonverbal) wor…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe contribution of working memory to fluid reasoning: Capacity, control, or both?
Chuderski, A., & Necka, E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028465 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Tasks for assessment of the episodic buffer: A systematic review.
Nobre, A. D. P., Rodrigues, J. D. C., Sbicigo, J. B., Piccolo, L. D. R., Zortea, M., Junior, S. D., & de Salles, J. F. (2013) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.3922/j.psns.2013.3.10 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Gonthier, C., & Roulin, J.-L. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000660 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Jarrold, C., & Citroën, R. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028771 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Kofler, M. J., Spiegel, J. A., Soto, E. F., Irwin, L. N., Wells, E. L., & Austin, K. E. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0447-1 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Which ‘Working’ Components of Working Memory aren’t Working in Youth with ADHD?
Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. M., & Raiker, J. S. (2020) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00621-y · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Hahn, E. A., & Lachman, M. E. (2015) · Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2014.888391 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Quach, D., Gibler, R. C., & Jastrowski Mano, K. E. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0624-7 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Does Strategy Training Reduce Age-Related Deficits in Working Memory?
Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2014) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000356699 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Borella, E., Carretti, B., Cornoldi, C., & De Beni, R. (2007) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/bf03324690 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
- Authors
- Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (DE)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Conway, Andrew R. A.
- Venue
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
- Published
- 2005-10
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 769-786
- ISSN
- 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-5320
- OpenAlex
- W2164740960
- Cited by
- 2,882
- References
- 109
- Citations by year
- 2026: 105 · 2025: 177 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 150 · 2021: 186 · 2020: 176 · 2019: 218 · 2018: 161 · 2017: 176 · 2016: 170 · 2015: 187 · 2014: 151 · 2013: 159 · 2012: 137
- FWCI
- 7.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- working memory span, operation span, reading span, working memory capacity, reliability statistics, validity, test administration, scoring methods, latent variable analysis
- MeSH terms
- Group Processes, Humans, Memory, Psychological Theory, Reading
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