The role of strategy use in working memory training outcomes
Open accessAbstract
Abstract Cognitive mechanisms underlying the limited transfer effects of working memory (WM) training remain poorly understood. We tested in detail the Strategy Mediation hypothesis, according to which WM training generates task-specific strategies that facilitate performance on the trained task and its untrained variants. This large-scale pre-registered randomized controlled trial (n = 258) used a 4-week adaptive WM training with a single digit n-back task. Strategy use was probed with open-ended strategy reports. We employed a Strategy training group (n = 73) receiving external strategy instruction, a Traditional training group (n = 118) practicing without strategy instruction, and Passive controls (n = 67). Both training groups showed emerging transfer to untrained n-back task variants already at intermediate test after 3 training sessions, extending to all untrained n-back task variants at posttest after 12 training sessions. The Strategy training group outperformed the Traditional training group only at the beginning of training, indicating short-lived strategy manipulation effects. Importantly, in the Traditional training group, strategy evolvement modulated the gains in the trained and untrained n-back tasks, supporting the Strategy Mediation hypothesis. Our results concur with the view of WM training as cognitive skill learning.
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ResultTraining-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies
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Stimulus novelty, task demands, and strategy use in episodic memory
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“We also probed for possible group differences with strategy sophistication as a continuous dependent variable (see Figure 4(c) and (d)), where No strategy was coded as 0, Maintenance or other strategies as 1, and Manipulation as 2 (see Fellman et al., 2020).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Role of Executive Function in Reading Development and Reading Intervention
Peng, P. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12375 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Working Memory Training for Children With Low Working Memory
Spencer‐Smith, M. M., Quach, J., Mensah, F. K., Roberts, G., Gathercole, S. E., Wake, M. A., & Anderson, P. J. (2020) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-4028 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Jylkkä, J., Ritakallio, L., Merzon, L., Kangas, S., Kliegel, M., Zuber, S., Hering, A., Laine, M., & Salmi, J. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-36351-6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationJylkkä, J., Ritakallio, L., Merzon, L., Kangas, S., Kliegel, M., Zuber, S., Hering, A., Salmi, J., & Laine, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280717 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In addition, various background factors like age and cognitive ability, as well as the highly variable employment of spontaneous strategies could mediate the performance in complex tasks [12,13].”
BackgroundSelf-citationWeicker, J., Hudl, N., Hildebrandt, H., Obrig, H., Schwarzer, M., Villringer, A., & Thöne-Otto, A. I. T. (2020) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2020.1773536 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Alternatively, cognitive training may not have increased the capacity of the WM system in terms of a ‘core’ training intervention (48), but rather improved its efficiency in terms of learning a strategy (49,50).”
BackgroundTzuriel, D., Weiss, T., & Kashy‐Rosenbaum, G. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12709 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Limits of near transfer: Content- and operation-specific effects of working memory training.
Himi, S. A., Stadler, M. J., von Bastian, C. C., Bühner, M., & Hilbert, S. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001328 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Strategy use and its evolvement in word list learning: a replication study
Laine, M., Fellman, D., Eräste, T., Ritakallio, L., & Salmi, J. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.230651 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationSpontaneous memory strategies in a videogame simulating everyday memory tasks
Laine, M., Jylkkä, J., Ritakallio, L., Eräste, T., Kangas, S., Hering, A., Zuber, S., Kliegel, M., Fellman, D., & Salmi, J. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231183958 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…in memory performance through manipulation of participants’ strategic choice (e.g., Bailey et al., 2014; Borella et al., 2017; Carretti et al., 2007; Fellman et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2020; Laine et al., 2018; Malinovitch et al., 2021; McNamara & Scott, 2001; Turley-Ames & Whitfield, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationLaurinavichyute, A., Yadav, H., & Vasishth, S. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hf297 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Asymmetric negative transfer effects of working memory training
Ni, N., Gathercole, S. E., Norris, D. G., & Saito, S. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01412-8 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“This strategy mediation account captures training outcomes as the improved efficacy of unchanged WM capacity (Dunning & Holmes, 2014; Fellman et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2020; Laine et al., 2018; Malinovitch et al., 2021).”
BackgroundIzhak, S. B., & Michal Lavidor, B. (2023) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2023.2172413 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Studer-Luethi, B., & Meier, B. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-020-00202-3 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Yanaoka, K., Wout, F. V. '., Saito, S., & Jarrold, C. (2023) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105650 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Ritakallio, L., Fellman, D., Jylkkä, J., Waris, O., Lönnroth, N., Nervander, R., Salmi, J., & Laine, M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00235-2 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationPoon, K., Ho, M. S. H., Wang, L., Lee, H. M., Lau, W. K., & Chan, W. W. L. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-02065-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“These results may stem from the working memory training app which constantly requires increased efforts and may have enabled individuals to focus, especially for those less likely to develop individual strategies to enhance their working memory (e.g., breaking tasks down into simple steps) [116].”
BackgroundQin, W., Kojima, S., Yamazaki, Y., Morishita, S., Hotta, K., Inoue, T., & Tsubaki, A. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app11041643 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-generated strategies in the phonological similarity effect
AuBuchon, A. M., & Wagner, R. L. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01418-2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Indeed, working memory training appears to benefit performance precisely when participants are provided explicit strategy instruction or when, over weeks of additional trials, they adopt strategies better suited to the specific task demands (Fellman et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2020; McNamara & Scott, 2001).”
BackgroundUnicorn, Hare, or Tortoise? Using Machine Learning to Predict Working Memory Training Performance
Feng, Y., Pahor, A., Seitz, A. R., Barbour, D. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.319 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Malinovitch, T., Albouy, P., Zatorre, R. J., & Ahissar, M. (2022) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhac175 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-reported strategy use in working memory tasks
Ritakallio, L., Fellman, D., Salmi, J., Jylkkä, J., & Laine, M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-54160-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…variable, strategy sophistication, was then derived from strategy type and formed a continuous variable with three levels as in Fellman et al. 6 : (i) no strategy, (ii) maintenance strategy encompassing the strategy types rehearsal, visuo-motor rehearsal, and familiarity, and (iii)…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationJylkkä, J., Stickley, Z. L., Fellman, D., Waris, O., Ritakallio, L., Little, T. D., Salmi, J., & Laine, M. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241278272 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In this study, pretest data from two previously published WM training experiments were employed (Fellman et al., 2020; Ritakallio et al., 2022).”
InfluentialSelf-citationTolonen, T., Leppämäki, S., Roine, T., Alho, K., Tani, P., Koski, A., Laine, M., & Salmi, J. (2024) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103696 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Also, examining the processes that lead to cognitive enhancement, such as the role of self-generated or examiner-instructed strategies (e.g., Fellman et al., 2020) could be a useful future direction.”
Self-citationAdapting Open Science and Pre-registration to Longitudinal ResearchPreprint
Petersen, I. T., Apfelbaum, K. S., & McMurray, B. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gtsvw · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The working memory modifiability: Effects of mediation on working memory and analogical thinking
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.106061 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Abdelshiheed, M., Moulder, R. G., Jr., Hostetter, J. W., Barnes, T. M., & Chi, M. (2024) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-024-09404-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Much prior work has investigated the impact of strategy instruction in learning a task, principle, or strategy (Newman et al. 2022; Fellman et al. 2020; McCarthy et al. 2018; Pachman et al. 2013; Spörer et al. 2009).”
Vocabulary recall and retention improvement: Working memory training using dual N-back task
Marashi, S. M., & Sadinezhad, M. A. (2023) · Global Journal of Foreign Language Teaching · doi:10.18844/gjflt.v13i1.6486 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Jylkkä, J., Fellman, D., Waris, O., Ritakallio, L., Stickley, Z. L., Little, T. D., Salmitaival, J., & Laine, M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jqwfp · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationJylkkä, J. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/kgyxr · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationLin, Y.-T., & Leber, A. B. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/shfqc · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Is working memory domain-general or domain-specific? Implications for theory and practicePreprint
Nozari, N., & Martin, R. C. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/d7a6j · Cited by 2 · see citing works
QUESTIONÁRIO DE LEVANTAMENTO DE ESTRATÉGIAS PARA TREINOS COGNITIVOS
Barbosa‐Pereira, D., Rabelo, I. N., Pinheiro, I. F., & Mansur‐Alves, M. (2024) · Recital - Revista de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia de Almenara/MG · doi:10.46636/recital.v5i3.487 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The role of spontaneous strategy use in verbal episodic memory impairment in adult ADHD
Laine, M., Kunnari, A., Eräste, T., Ritakallio, L., Hedberg, B., & Salmi, J. (2025) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12416 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationMa, C., Li, Y., Gao, Y., Lin, X., Hou, Y., He, W., Zhu, Y., Jiang, J., Xie, Y., & Fang, P. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf081 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Robledo-Castro, C., Castaño, P. R. L., & Ospina, L. G. P. (2023) · Revista de Investigación e Innovación en Ciencias de la Salud · doi:10.46634/riics.134 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Yanaoka, K., Wout, F. V. ‘., Saito, S., & Jarrold, C. (2024) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-024-01581-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“While many training studies do involve participants undergoing intensive and prolonged task training (e.g., Fellman et al., 2020; Holmes et al., 2019), the decision to employ short-term training is not novel in this context (e.g., Bhandari & Badre, 2018 employed 48 trials) and was guided by…”
InfluentialUnderstanding the relations between cognition and academic skills in the context of instruction
Peng, P. (2025) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2024.10.003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategiesPreprint
Malinovitch, T., Jackoby, H., & Ahissar, M. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.24.113555 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ørskov, P. T., Norup, A., Beatty, E. L., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00221-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Getting at Underlying Mechanisms of Far Transfer - the Mediating Role of Near TransferPreprint
Pahor, A., Seitz, A. R., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q5xmp · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, J., Zhou, Y., Yuan, M., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02994-5
Broad and sustained transfer effects of executive n-back working memory training
Cao, D.-Y., Zhang, T.-N., Zhang, Y., Zhang, E., & Zhang, G.-L. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02773-8
“Between sessions, difficulty was adjusted using the “N-2 principle” (Fellman et al., 2020).”
Yanaoka, K., Wout, F. V. ‘., Saito, S., & Jarrold, C. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241246189
“A large number of studies have already examined whether and how cognitive control training benefits adults and children (e.g., Fellman et al., 2020; Holmes et al., 2019; Thorell et al., 2009; Traut, Chevalier, et al., 2021; for a recent review Smid et al., 2020; Traut, Guild, & Munakata, 2021).”
The Working Memory Modifiability: Effects of Mediation on Working Memory and Analogical ThinkingPreprint
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Weiss, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5254501
Minimal training duration inducing near transfer in two-phase working memory training paradigm
Ni, N., Tsubomi, H., & Saito, S. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218251369061
“Similarly, a view of cognitive strategy development also suggests that WM training stimulates the generation of efficient task-specific strategies that contribute to training-related improvements (Dunning & Holmes, 2014; Fellman et al., 2020; Forsberg et al., 2020).”
Sequential learning in neural decoders reveals interpretable neural representations
Klawitter, J., & Michmizos, K. P. (2026) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2026.132742
Cognitive Strategy-based neuromodulation optimizes neural communication to improve working memory
Tian, Y., Tan, C., Jiang, Y., Li, P., & Ma, W. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.122104
Working memory strategies in children aged 7–10 years
Hrysanidis, C., Lau, R. C., Anderson, P. J., Herrera, L. R., Gathercole, S. E., Wiley, J. F., & Spencer‐Smith, M. M. (2026) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-026-01916-z
Tzuriel, D., & Hanuka-Levy, D. (2026) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2026.101751
From Memory to Strategy: Exploring Strategy Use During Working Memory Training in Brazilian Children
Barbosa‐Pereira, D., Martins, P. S. R., & Mansur‐Alves, M. (2026) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218261477569
- Authors
- Fellman, D., Jylkkä, J., Waris, O., Soveri, A., Ritakallio, L., Haga, S., Salmi, J., Nyman, T. J., & Laine, M.
- Affiliations
- Åbo Akademi University (FI)
- University of Turku (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Fellman, Daniel
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Memory and Language
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-02
- Volume
- 110
- Pages
- 104064
- ISSN
- 0749-596X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2981224436
- Semantic Scholar
- 7d1d0183303e5980d653fa88c9a03fe04cb9df54
- Cited by
- 64
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 6.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Memory and Language (publishedVersion)
- Åbo Akademi University Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Academy of Finland (260276, 323251)
- Signe ja Ane Gyllenbergin Säätiö
- Stiftelsen för Åbo Akademi
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- working memory training, strategy use, transfer of training, n-back task, strategy instruction, cognitive skill learning, adaptive training
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