Fear-Arousing Persuasive Messages

A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change1

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Findings and Theory in the Study of Fear Communications

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Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies

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Effects of fear-arousing communications.

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Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies

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Effects of fear and specificity of recommendation upon attitudes and behavior.

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Fear appeals and attitude change: effects of a threat's noxiousness, probability of occurrence, and the efficacy of coping responses.

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Fifteen years of fear arousal: Research on threat appeals: 1953-1968.

Higbee, K. L. (1969) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0028430 · Cited by 294 · see citing works

Fear appeals and persuasion: the differentiation of a motivational construct.

Leventhal, H. (1971) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.61.6.1208 · Cited by 278 · see citing works

Effects of fear and instructions on how to cope with danger.

Leventhal, H., Watts, J. C., & Pagano, F. (1967) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021222 · Cited by 240 · see citing works

Sources of resistance to fear-arousing communications on smoking and lung cancer1

Leventhal, H., & Watts, J. C. (1966) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1966.tb01706.x · Cited by 215 · see citing works

Fear‐Arousing and Empathy‐Arousing Appeals to Help: The Pathos of Persuasion

Shelton, M. L., & Rogers, R. W. (1981) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1981.tb00829.x · Cited by 210 · see citing works

An experimental study of psychological resistances to fear arousing communications.

Janis, I. L., & Terwilliger, R. F. (1962) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0047601 · Cited by 206 · see citing works

The Volunteer Subject

Rosenthal, R. (1965) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/001872676501800407 · Cited by 201 · see citing works

A Conceptualization of Threat Communications and Protective Health Behavior

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Effectiveness of emotional role-playing in modifying smoking habits and attitudes.

Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1965) · Cited by 167 · see citing works

Fear Appeals: Revisited and Revised

Sternthal, B., & Craig, C. S. (1974) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/208597 · Cited by 158 · see citing works

Effects of varying the recommendations in a fear-arousing communication.

Dabbs, J. M., & Leventhal, H. (1966) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021190 · Cited by 157 · see citing works

The relationship between coping and avoiding behavior and response to fear-arousing propaganda.

Goldstein, M. J. (1959) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044492 · Cited by 147 · see citing works

The Effects of Health Threat Seriousness and Personal Efficacy upon Intentions and Behavior1

Beck, K. H., & Lund, A. K. (1981) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1981.tb00832.x · Cited by 141 · see citing works

The interest value and relevance of fear arousing communications.

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Fear arousal, persuasion, and actual versus implied behavioral change: New perspective utilizing a real-life dental hygiene program.

Evans, R. I., Rozelle, R. M., Lasater, T. M., Dembroski, T. M., & Allen, B. P. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029834 · Cited by 127 · see citing works

Personality Differences Associated with Responsiveness to Fear-Arousing Communications1

JANIS, I. L., & FESHBACH, S. (1954) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1954.tb01145.x · Cited by 126 · see citing works

Effects of threatening and reassuring components of fear appeals on physiological and verbal measures of emotion and attitudes

Mewborn, C. R., & Rogers, R. W. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(79)90035-0 · Cited by 118 · see citing works

Effects of fear-arousing components of driver education on students' safety attitudes and simulator performance.

Griffeth, R. W., & Rogers, R. W. (1976) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.68.4.501 · Cited by 111 · see citing works

Effects of fear appeals and physiological arousal upon emotion, attitudes, and cigarette smoking.

Rogers, R. W., & Deckner, C. W. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.222 · Cited by 108 · see citing works

A field experiment on fear arousal with data on the validity of questionnaire measures1

Leventhal, H., & Niles, P. (1964) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1964.tb01352.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works

Fear arousal, efficacy, and imminency.

Chu, G. C. (1966) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021189 · Cited by 93 · see citing works

Affect arousal and positioning of recommendations in persuasive communications.

Leventhal, H., & Singer, R. P. (1966) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0023569 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

Effects of high and low fear-arousing communications upon opinions toward smoking

Insko, C. A., Arkoff, A., & Insko, V. M. (1965) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(65)90030-2 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

Sex differences in attitude and behavior change under conditions of fear and specific instructions

Leventhal, H., Jones, S. E., & Trembly, G. (1966) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(66)90030-8 · Cited by 87 · see citing works

Coping with the energy crisis: Effects of fear appeals upon attitudes toward energy consumption.

Hass, J. W., Bagley, G. S., & Rogers, R. W. (1975) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.60.6.754 · Cited by 85 · see citing works

Source credibility and response to fear‐arousing communications

Hewgill, M. A., & Miller, G. R. (1965) · Speech Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637756509375436 · Cited by 77 · see citing works

Fear Appeal Effects in the Field: A Segmentation Approach

Burnett, J. J., & Oliver, R. L. (1979) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224377901600203 · Cited by 74 · see citing works

Effects of fear arousal and reassurance on attitude change.

Rogers, R. W., & Thistlethwaite, D. L. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029437 · Cited by 69 · see citing works

Ineffectiveness of threat appeals about drinking and driving

Kohn, P. M., Goodstadt, M. S., Cook, G. M., Sheppard, M. A., & Chan, G. (1982) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/0001-4575(82)90059-8 · Cited by 68 · see citing works

What do you do when the control group doesn't fit into the factorial design?

Himmelfarb, S. (1975) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.82.3.363 · Cited by 63 · see citing works

Fear-provoking recommendations, intentions to take preventive actions, and actual preventive actions.

Krisher, H. P., Darley, S. A., & Darley, J. M. (1973) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0034465 · Cited by 61 · see citing works

The Relationship between Anxiety and Positive and Negative Advertising Appeals

Wheatley, J. J., & Oshikawa, S. (1970) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224377000700110 · Cited by 61 · see citing works

Persistence of Influence for Varying Durations of Exposure to Threat Stimuli

Leventhal, H., & Niles, P. (1965) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1965.16.1.223 · Cited by 57 · see citing works

The effects of fear arousal, fear position, fear exposure, and sidedness on compliance with dietary instructions

Skilbeck, C. E., Tulips, J., & Ley, P. (1977) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420070208 · Cited by 56 · see citing works

Negative emotions and persuasion1

Leventhal, H., & Trembly, G. (1968) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1968.tb01466.x · Cited by 55 · see citing works

The effects of threats to attitudinal freedom as a function of message quality and initial receiver attitude

Smith, M. J. (1977) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637757709390131 · Cited by 48 · see citing works

Effects of threat appeals and media of transmission

Frandsen, K. D. (1963) · Speech Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637756309375365 · Cited by 43 · see citing works

The Role of Esteem and Coping in Response to a Threat Communication.

Rosen, T., Terry, N. S., & Leventhal, H. (1982) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(82)90043-5 · Cited by 41 · see citing works

Effects of volunteering, fear arousal, and number of communications on attitude change.

Horowitz, I. A. (1969) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0027024 · Cited by 40 · see citing works

The effect of anxiety‐arousing messages when related to personal, familial, and impersonal referents

Powell, F. A. (1965) · Speech Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637756509375437 · Cited by 38 · see citing works

Social approval and disapproval cues in anxiety‐arousing communications

Powell, F. A., & Miller, G. R. (1967) · Speech Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637756709375535 · Cited by 37 · see citing works

Studies on the use of fear appeals: A summary and analysis

Miller, G. R. (1963) · Central States Speech Journal · doi:10.1080/10510976309362689 · Cited by 37 · see citing works

Anxiety, comprehension, and susceptibility to social influence.

Millman, S. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021252 · Cited by 36 · see citing works

Utilizing Causal Models to Discover Flaws in Experiments

Costner, H. L. (1971) · Sociometry · doi:10.2307/2786206 · Cited by 35 · see citing works

Ethnicity of Communicator, Self-Esteem, and Reactions to Fear-Arousing Communications

Ramírez, A., & Lasater, T. M. (1977) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1977.9713243 · Cited by 30 · see citing works

New Measure of Effects of Persuasive Communications: A Chemical Indicator of Toothbrushing Behavior

Evans, R. I., Rozelle, R. M., Lasater, T. M., Dembroski, T. M., & Allen, B. P. (1968) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1968.23.3.731 · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Internal–external locus of control as a moderator of fear appeals.

Burnett, J. J. (1981) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.66.3.390 · Cited by 24 · see citing works

Some Effects of Fear-Arousing Communications on Preventive Health Behavior

Radelfinger, S. (1965) · Health Education Monographs · doi:10.1177/109019816500101901 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Repression-sensitization and yielding to threatening health communications

Hill, D. J., & Gardner, G. (1980) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049538008254688 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Effects of the volunteer subject, choice, and fear arousal on attitude change

Horowitz, I. A., & Gumenik, W. E. (1970) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(70)90064-8 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

False physiological feedback and persuasion: Effect of fear arousal vs. fear reduction on attitude change

Hendrick, C., Giesen, M., & Borden, R. J. (1975) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1975.tb00702.x · Cited by 16 · see citing works

A Comparison of the Effects of Punishment-Oriented and Reward-Oriented Messages in Persuasive Communication

McCroskey, J. C., & Wright, D. W. (1971) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1971.tb00906.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works

The Effectiveness of Persuasive Communication Presented under Conditions of Irrelevant Fear

Simonson, N. R., & Lundy, R. M. (1966) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1966.tb00014.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works

Humanistic and scientific approaches to speech communication inquiry: Rivalry, redundancy, or rapprochement

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Learned helplessness and depression among Israeli women.

Rosenbaum, M., & Shichman, S. (1979) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(197904)35:2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Attitude Change as a Function of Perceived Arousal

Horowitz, I. A. (1972) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1972.9918654 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Ancients and moderns on fear and fear appeals: A comparative analysis

Sussman, L. (1973) · Central States Speech Journal · doi:10.1080/10510977309363172 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Reactions to a Sequence of Fear-Arousing Messages

Kirscht, J. P., & Haefner, D. P. (1969) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e463442008-191 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model

Witte, K. (1992) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637759209376276 · Cited by 3,880 · see citing works

A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns

Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/109019810002700506 · Cited by 3,216 · see citing works

One Hundred Years of Social Psychology Quantitatively Described

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Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM)

Witte, K. (1994) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637759409376328 · Cited by 1,460 · see citing works

Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories

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An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research

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Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables.

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Does heightening risk appraisals change people’s intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies.

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Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis.

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When to Accentuate the Negative: The Effects of Perceived Efficacy and Message Framing on Intentions to Perform a Health-Related Behavior

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Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals

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Defensive processing of personally relevant health messages

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Fear appeals in social marketing: Strategic and ethical reasons for concern

Hastings, G., Stead, M., & Webb, J. (2004) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20043 · Cited by 595 · see citing works

Antecedents to willingness to participate in a planned organizational change

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A Cognitive-Functional Model for the Effects of Discrete Negative Emotions on Information Processing, Attitude Change, and Recall

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Reaching Agreements Through Argumentation: A Logical Model and Implementation

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Future‐oriented emotions: conceptualization and behavioral effects

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The Extended Parallel Process Model: Illuminating the Gaps in Research

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Discrete Emotions and Persuasion: The Role of Emotion-Induced Expectancies.

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Fear Appeals and Persuasion: A Review and Update of the Extended Parallel Process Model

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Designing Effective Health Communications: A Meta-Analysis

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Fear as motivator, fear as inhibitor

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The Impact of Vulnerability to and Severity of a Health Risk on Processing and Acceptance of Fear-Arousing Communications: A Meta-Analysis

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Communication and Marketing As Climate Change–Intervention Assets

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There are Threats and (Maybe) Fear-Caused Arousal: Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself

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Affective and cognitive reactions to narrative versus statistical evidence organ donation messages

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Self-Determination Theory and Public Policy: Improving the Quality of Consumer Decisions without using Coercion

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A Conceptual Framework for Achieving Performance Enhancing Drug Compliance in Sport

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Emotional responses to prosocial messages increase willingness to self-isolate during the COVID-19 pandemic

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A Further Extension of the Extended Parallel Process Model (E-EPPM): Implications of Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotion and Dispositional Coping Style

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The Influence of Behavioral Inhibition/Approach Systems and Message Framing on the Processing of Persuasive Health Messages

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The Impact of Fear on Emotional Brand Attachment

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The role of fear appeals in improving driver safety: A review of the effectiveness of fear-arousing (threat) appeals in road safety advertising.

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How Disgust Enhances the Effectiveness of Fear Appeals

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Examining the effectiveness of physical threats in road safety advertising: The role of the third-person effect, gender, and age

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Meta‐analysis of self‐report data on the effectiveness of public speaking anxiety treatment techniques

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The Impact of Fear Appeals on Processing and Acceptance of Action Recommendations

de Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271321 · Cited by 163 · see citing works

Antismoking Threat and Efficacy Appeals: Effects on Smoking Cessation Intentions for Smokers with Low and High Readiness to Quit

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Physician as partner or salesman? Shared decision-making in real-time encounters

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Reexamining Fear Appeal Models from Cognitive Appraisal Theory and Functional Emotion Theory Perspectives

So, J., Kuang, K., & Cho, H. (2015) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637751.2015.1044257 · Cited by 158 · see citing works

Impact of fear appeals on pro-environmental behavior and crucial determinants

Chen, M.-F. (2015) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2015.1101908 · Cited by 155 · see citing works

The role of fear in persuasion

Dillard, J. P., & Anderson, J. W. (2004) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20041 · Cited by 153 · see citing works

The processing of fear‐arousing communications: How biased processing leads to persuasion

de Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2008) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510802185836 · Cited by 148 · see citing works

Automated Negotiation and Decision Making in Multiagent Environments

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A practitioner’s guide to persuasion: An overview of 15 selected persuasion theories, models and frameworks

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Testing Equivalence in Communication Research: Theory and Application

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Response efficacy: The key to minimizing rejection and maximizing acceptance of emotion-based anti-speeding messages

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Designing Media Messages About Health and Nutrition: What Strategies Are Most Effective?

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Fear appeal messages affect accessibility of attitudes toward the threat and adaptive behaviors

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The Effectiveness of Empathy- Versus Fear-Arousing Antismoking PSAs

Shen, L. (2011) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2011.552480 · Cited by 128 · see citing works

Beyond Protection Motivation: An Integrative Theory of Health Appeals

Block, L., & Keller, P. A. (1998) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01691.x · Cited by 123 · see citing works

Can Fear Arousal in Public Health Campaigns Contribute to the Decline of HIV Prevalence?

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A Meta-Analysis of Common Factor and Specific Treatment Effects Across the Outcome Domains of the Phase Model of Psychotherapy

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Fear‐pattern analysis supports the fear‐drive model for antispeeding road‐safety TV ads

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