Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model

Witte, Kim

doi:10.1080/03637759209376276

Cited by 3,880Behavioral Health and InterventionsRisk Perception and ManagementMedia Influence and Health

Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model

Witte, Kim·1992·Communication Monographs

DOI 10.1080/03637759209376276

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Abstract

The fear appeal literature is diverse and inconsistent. Existing fear appeal theories explain the positive linear results occurring in many studies, but are unable to explain the boomerang or curvilinear results occurring in other studies. The present work advances a theory integrating previous theoretical perspectives (i.e., Janis, 1967; Leventhal, 1970; Rogers, 1975, 1983) that is based on Leventhal's (1970) danger control/fear control framework. The proposed fear appeal theory, called the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), expands on previous approaches in three ways: (a) by explaining why fear appeals fail; (b) by re‐incorporating fear as a central variable; and (c) by specifying the relationship between threat and efficacy in propositional forms. Specific propositions are given to guide future research.

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Fear appeals research has been guided by Witte's Extended Parallel Process Model, which emphasizes interactions of threat and efficacy in triggering danger control and fear control.
“The time-honored study of fear appeals has been influentially guided by Witte's (1992) venerable Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), which emphasizes the role of interactions of threat and efficacy in triggering danger control (the healthful process) and fear control (the more defensive, less adaptive process).”
From An Integrative Terror Management Theory Perspective on Media Effects: A Model and 12 Hypotheses for Research (2016) · cites this paper as Witte's (1992)
Additional items were developed based on key constructs from the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) and the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM).
“Additional items were developed based on key constructs from theoretical frameworks such as the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) (Witte, 1992) and the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) (Lindell & Perry, 2012).”
From Assessing earthquake preparedness in a culturally diverse international students population: a case of Ehime university in Shikoku, Japan (2025) · cites this paper as Witte, 1992
Anxiety's effects depend on intensity levels and individual psychological resources such as self-efficacy.
“This dual nature suggests anxiety’s effects depend on intensity levels and individual psychological resources such as self-efficacy [28].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
Existing literature suggests that anxiety may exhibit an inverted-U relationship with behavioral outcomes.
“existing literature suggests that anxiety may exhibit an inverted-U relationship with behavioral outcomes [28].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
Attitudes and beliefs influence intentions and ultimately behaviour.
“which later influence intentions and ultimately behaviour.”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [52]

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Authors: Witte, K.
Affiliations: Texas A&M University (US)
Corresponding author: Witte, Kim
Venue: Communication Monographs
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1992-12
Volume: 59
Issue: 4
Pages: 329-349
ISSN: 0363-7751 (ISSN-L)
1479-5787
DOI: 10.1080/03637759209376276
OpenAlex: W2017785078
Cited by: 3,880
References: 95
Citations by year: 2026: 249 · 2025: 250 · 2024: 268 · 2023: 258 · 2022: 296 · 2021: 363 · 2020: 254 · 2019: 183 · 2018: 193 · 2017: 176 · 2016: 156 · 2015: 168 · 2014: 160 · 2013: 146 · 2012: 91
FWCI: 11.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Communication Monographs (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Media Influence and Health
Keywords: fear appeals, Extended Parallel Process Model, fear control, boomerang effect, curvilinear effects, persuasion theory, health communication

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Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model

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