Cited by 316Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

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Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Mariani, Mary Ann, Barkley, Russell A.·1997·Developmental Neuropsychology

DOI 10.1080/87565649709540671

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Abstract

We compared 34 preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to 30 community comparison boys without behavioral problems on a battery of neuropsychological and academic achievement tests along with behavioral observations. The battery of 25 measures was reduced to 4 dimensions through dimensional (factor) analysis. Comparison of the 2 groups revealed that boys with ADHD performed more poorly than comparison boys on 2 of the 4 dimensions, these being motor control and working memory‐persistence. No differences were found on the dimensions of verbal learning‐memory or picture identification‐factual knowledge. The results suggest that achievement problems are evident early in development in clinic‐referred children with ADHD and may be related to deficiencies in more fundamental neuropsychological functions. These early deficits in motor control and working memory seem to be an inherent part of ADHD, supporting both the neuromaturational nature of the disorder and current efforts to more broadly conceptualize it as involving deficits in executive functions beyond the core problems in behavioral inhibition and sustained attention.

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Background
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“…Grodzinsky, & DuPaul, 1992; Fischer, Newby, & Gordon, 1995; Gordon, DiNiro, Mettelman, & Tallmadge, 1989; Gordon & Mettelman, 1987; Grodzinsky & Diamond, 1992; Loge, Staton, & Beatty, 1990; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Mayes & Calhoun, 2002; Mayes, Calhoun, & Crowell, 2001; McClure & Gordon, 1984).”
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Result
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Background
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Background
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Motor Ability and Inhibitory Processes in Children With ADHD: A Neuroelectric Study
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Background
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Result
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Background
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“Not surprisingly, there are markedly poorer outcomes on many academic indicators, including achievement, motivation, engagement, attainment and retention (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003; Heiligenstein, Guenther, Levy, Savino, & Fulwiler, 1999; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Purdie et al., 2002).”
Background
Aetiology for the covariation between combined type ADHD and reading difficulties in a family study: the role of IQ
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“…and RD are associated with IQ scores that are, on average, 7–16 points lower than comparison samples (Crosbie & Schachar, 2001; Kuntsi et al., 2004; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Marzocchi et al., 2008; Rucklidge & Tannock, 2001; Tiffin-Richards, Hasselhorn, Woerner, Rothenberger, & Banaschewski, 2008;…”
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Hyperactivity following postnatal NMDA antagonist treatment: Reversal by D-amphetamine
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No Behavioral or ERP Evidence for a Developmental Lag in Visual Working Memory Capacity or Filtering in Adolescents and Adults with ADHD
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“Impaired performance on neuropsychological memory tasks has been reported in children [6,7], adolescents [8,9] and adults [10–”
Background
Interference control in working memory: Comparing groups of children with atypical development
Palladino, P., & Ferrari, M. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.633505 · Cited by 38
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The Gordon Diagnostic System and WISC–III Freedom from Distractibility Index: Validity in Identifying Clinic-Referred Children with and without ADHD
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Do hyperactive children have motor organization and/or execution deficits?
Leung, P. W. L., & Connolly, K. (1998) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1998.tb15425.x · Cited by 32
Psychometric properties of measures of behavioral inhibition with preschool-age children: Implications for assessment of children at risk for ADHD
Floyd, R. G., & Kirby, E. (2001) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/108705470100500202 · Cited by 35
Working Memory Control Deficit in Kindergarten ADHD Children
Re, A. M., Franchis, V. D., & Cornoldi, C. (2010) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297040903373404 · Cited by 37
“…2005), these data are consistent with previous evidence that showed that executive problems in ADHD kindergarten children are particularly critical (Mariani & Barkley, 1997), suggesting that a core problem in WM impairment of ADHD children may be related with the attentional control of stored…”
BackgroundResult
Latent profile analysis of neuropsychological measures to determine preschoolers' risk for ADHD
Rajendran, K., O’Neill, S. C., Marks, D. J., & Halperin, J. M. (2015) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12434 · Cited by 35
“…across multiple domains, including both executive (Willcutt, ), working memory (Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Sj€ owall et al., 2014), delay aversion (Sj€ owall et al., 2014; Sonuga-Barke, Dalen, & Remington, 2003), response variability (Berwid et al., 2005), and motor control (Mariani & Barkley, 1997).”
Does IQ influence Associations between ADHD Symptoms and other Cognitive Functions in young Preschoolers?
Rohrer-Baumgartner, N., Zeiner, P., Egeland, J., Gustavson, K., Skogan, A. H., Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., & Aase, H. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-10-16 · Cited by 35
“Children with high levels of ADHD symptoms often show delays or impairments in cognitive functions such as WM, inhibition, and language [3-9].”
Background
The relation between 3-year-old children's skills and their hyperactivity, inattention, and aggression.
Friedman-Weieneth, J. L., Harvey, E. A., Youngwirth, S. D., & Goldstein, L. H. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.671 · Cited by 31
Bimanual Coordination Deficits in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Klimkeit, E., Sheppard, D. M., Lee, P. H., & Bradshaw, J. L. (2004) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390490515568 · Cited by 32
“…of greater impaired bimanual pegboard scores (Heinrichs, Ruttan, Zakanis, & Case, 1997); however, studies comparing individuals with ADHD to controls have only found impaired bimanual scores in preschoolers (Mariani & Barkley, 1997), and not adolescents (Oie & Rund, 1999; Reeve & Schandler, 2001).”
BackgroundResult
The analysis of Attention Network in ADHD, attention problems and typically developing subjects
Fabio, R. A., & Urso, M. (2014) · Cited by 28
Gestational organophosphate ester exposure and preschool attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child cohort study
Hall, A. M., Ramos, A. M., Drover, S. S. M., Choi, G., Keil, A. P., Richardson, D. B., Martin, C. L., Olshan, A. F., Villanger, G. D., Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114078 · Cited by 28
Neurocognitive disorders in sentenced male offenders: Implications for rehabilitation
Tuominen, T., Korhonen, T. T., Hämäläinen, H., Temonen, S., Salo, H., Katajisto, J., & Lauerma, H. (2013) · Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/cbm.1879 · Cited by 27
Intellectual Deficits in Children with ADHD Beyond Central Executive and Non-Executive Functions
Tillman, C. M., Bohlin, G., Sorensen, L., & Lundervold, A. J. (2009) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acp075 · Cited by 27
Elements of Working Memory as Predictors of Goal-Setting Skills in Children With Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
Nyman, A. H., Taskinen, T., Grönroos, M. A., Haataja, L. M., Lähdetie, J., & Korhonen, T. T. (2010) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219410375001 · Cited by 31
Difficulties of children with ADHD symptoms in solving mathematical problems when information must be updated
Re, A. M., Lovero, F., Cornoldi, C., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2016) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.09.001 · Cited by 38
“…for the children with ADHD, as several studies provided support to the hypothesis that children with ADHD have poor working memory, in particular in suppressing irrelevant information and updating relevant information (Armstrong, Hayes, & Martin, 2001; Barkley, 1997; Mariani & Barkley, 1997).”
Result
Hyperactivity in Children: A Focus on Genetic Research and Psychological Theories
Kuntsi, J., & Stevenson, J. (2000) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1009580718281 · Cited by 45
Effects of a working memory training program in preschoolers with symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Capodieci, A., Gola, M. L., Cornoldi, C., & Re, A. M. (2017) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2017.1307946 · Cited by 26
“These studies that compare preschool-age children with symptoms to children without symptoms from the same cohort report impairment in WM (Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Re, De Franchis, & Cornoldi, 2010; Schoemaker et al., 2012; Sinzig, Vinzelberg, Evers, & Lehmkuhl, 2014), with particular association…”
Background
Preschool ADHD: exploring uncertainties in diagnostic validity and utility, and treatment efficacy and safety
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Daley, D., Thompson, M. J. J., & Swanson, J. (2003) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/14737175.3.4.465 · Cited by 27
Generating Attention, Inhibition, and Memory: A Pilot Randomized Trial for Preschoolers With Executive Functioning Deficits
Tamm, L., Epstein, J. N., Loren, R. E. A., Becker, S. P., Brenner, S. B., Bamberger, M. E., Peugh, J., & Halperin, J. M. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1266645 · Cited by 28
“…Child & Adolescent Psychology ISSN: 1537-4416 print/1537-4424 online DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1266645 flexibility, and behavioral inhibition (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Byrne, DeWolfe, & Bawden, 1998; Hughes, White, Sharpen, & Dunn, 2000; Mariani & Barkley, 1997).”
Influential
Placing Neuroanatomical Models of Executive Function in a Developmental Context
Brocki, K. C., Fan, J., & Fossella, J. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1417.025 · Cited by 26
IQ and Academic Achievement in Children with ADHD: the Differential Effects of Specific Cognitive Functions
Calub, C. A., Rapport, M. D., Friedman, L. M., & Eckrich, S. J. (2019) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-019-09728-z · Cited by 30
Evolutionary recasting: ADHD, mania and its variants
Brody, J. (2001) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(00)00170-1 · Cited by 24
Card Sorting Performance and ADHD Symptomatology in Children and Adolescents with Tourette Syndrome
Cirino, P. T., Chapieski, L., & Massman, P. J. (2000) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/1380-3395(200004)22:2;1-1;ft245 · Cited by 24
“…Weber, & Ouellette, 1997), and on other EF-related tasks such as the Trail Making Test, Stroop Test, gono-go and conflicting response tasks (Shue & Douglas, 1992), motor control and working memory (Mariani, 1991; Mariani & Barkley, 1997), and other measures (Gorenstein, Mammato, & Sandy, 1989).”
Method
Do Executive Dysfunction, Delay Aversion, and Time Perception Deficit Predict ADHD Symptoms and Early Academic Performance in Preschoolers
Zheng, Q., Cheng, Y. Y., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., & Shum, K. K. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-022-00937-x · Cited by 29
“Among the three proposed neuropsychological components implicated in ADHD, executive dysfunction has been commonly found to associate with academic performance deficits in early childhood (e.g., Mariani & Barkley 1997; Sjöwall et al., 2017; Thorell, 2007; Willoughby et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
A Review of the Clinical Utility of Systematic Behavioral Observations in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Minder, F., Zuberer, A., Brandeis, D., & Drechsler, R. (2017) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-017-0776-2 · Cited by 23
Developmental norms for eight instruments used in the neuropsychological assessment of children: studies in Brazil
Brito, G. N. O., Alfradique, G. M. N., Pereira, C. C. S., Porto, C. M. B., & dos Santos, T. R. M. (1998) · Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research · doi:10.1590/s0100-879x1998000300012 · Cited by 21
Neurobiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Preschoolers
Valera, E. M., & Seidman, L. J. (2006) · Infants & Young Children · doi:10.1097/00001163-200604000-00003 · Cited by 21
“…visual and/or auditory vigilance tasks (Byrne, Bawden et al., 1998; DeWolfe et al., 1999), motor control, working memory, goal directed persistence (Mariani & Barkley, 1997), and tasks of preacademic skills including tests of memory, reasoning, and conceptual development (DuPaul, McGoey, Eckert, &…”
Background
Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence
Mash, E. J., & Wolfe, D. A. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0802 · Cited by 21
Assessing the Working Memory Abilities of ADHD Children Using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition
Marusiak, C. W., & Janzen, H. (2005) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/0829573506295463 · Cited by 30
“In general, the research suggests that neither verbal nor spatial subsidiary systems (short-term memory) are impaired in ADHD (Barkley, DuPaul, & McMurray, 1990; Karatekin & Asarnow, 1998; Mariani & Barkley, 1997).”
Background
Executive Function: Description and Explanation
Dick, A. S., & Overton, W. F. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327694.003.0001 · Cited by 21
Exploring the Effects of Working Memory on Time Perception in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Lee, H.-Y., & Yang, E.-L. (2018) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294118755674 · Cited by 24
“In addition, many studies have confirmed deficits in working memory in children with ADHD (e.g. Dowson et al., 2004; Gathercole et al., 2008; Karatekin, 2004; Kempton et al., 1999; Kuntsi, Oosterlaan, & Stevenson, 2001; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Westerberg, Hirvikoski, Forssberg, & Klingberg, 2004).”
Background
Differences in memory functioning between children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and/or focal epilepsy
Lee, S. E., Kibby, M. Y., Cohen, M. J., Stanford, L. D., Park, Y., & Strickland, S. M. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1060955 · Cited by 19
Neuropsychological Measures in the Diagnosis of ADHD in Preschool: Can Developmental Research Inform Diagnostic Practice?
Merkt, J., Siniatchkin, M., & Petermann, F. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716629741 · Cited by 19
“The K-CPT and the Gordon Diagnostic System were developed to diagnose ADHD, and there are different studies demonstrating their associations with ADHD.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Right-sided spatial difficulties in ADHD demonstrated in continuous movement control
Johnson, K. A., Dáibhis, A., Tobin, C. T., Acheson, R., Watchorn, A., Mulligan, A., Barry, E., Bradshaw, J. L., Gill, M., & Robertson, I. H. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.12.026 · Cited by 20
Epidemiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Faraone, S. V. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470976739.ch25 · Cited by 19
Gender differences in the relationship between attention problems and expressive language and emerging academic skills in preschool‐aged children
Zevenbergen, A. A., & Ryan, M. M. (2009) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430903059292 · Cited by 21
“A small number of studies have examined the relationship between problems related to ADHD and pre-academic skills in preschoolers (DuPaul, McGoey, Eckert, & Van Brakle, 2001; Lonigan et al., 1999; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Velting & Whitehurst, 1997; Willcutt et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
Co-occurrence of developmental delays among preschool children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder
Yochman, A., Ornoy, A., & Parush, S. (2007) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2006.tb01300.x · Cited by 17
“…that characterization of ADHD in the early years is of clinical, scientific, and public health interest (Wilens et al. 2002), as well as to the awareness that it is not possible to extrapolate findings on the school-age population downward to the preschool age range (Mariani and Barkley 1997).”
BackgroundResult
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Perceived Competence, and Self-Worth: Evidence and Implications for Students and Practitioners
Martin, A. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2335-5_3 · Cited by 19
Identifying Characteristics of Older and Younger Females with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Kato, P. M., NICHOLS, M. L., Kerivan, A. S., & Huffman, L. C. (2001) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/00004703-200110000-00005 · Cited by 16
“The large proportion of older girls in the subgroup of girls with higher verbal IQ scores was unexpected because ADHD symptoms have been consistently associated with lower IQ scores, especially verbal IQ scores.(50,51) In addition, girls with ADHD consistently have lower IQ scores than boys with the disorder, with the…”
Background
Preschool inattention and impulsivity-hyperactivity: Development of a clinic-based assessment protocol
DeWolfe, N. A., Byrne, J. M., & Bawden, H. N. (2000) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/108705470000400202 · Cited by 16
Time Reproduction Deficits at Young Adult Follow-Up in Childhood ADHD: The Role of Persistence of Disorder and Executive Functioning
Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M. (2018) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2018.1541992 · Cited by 14
“The test has acceptable reliability and normative data and three studies have shown it to differentiate groups of ADHD from groups of typical children (Grodzinsky & Diamond, 1992; Mariani & Barkley, 1997) and from children with ADD who are not hyperactive (Barkley, Grodzinsky, & DuPaul, 1992).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Perceptuomotor Functioning in Preschool Children with Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Yochman, A., Ornoy, A., & Parush, S. (2006) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.102.1.175-186 · Cited by 14

Authors: Mariani, M. A., & Barkley, R. A.
Affiliations: University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School (US)
ORCID: Barkley, Russell A.
Venue: Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1997-01
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
Pages: 111-129
ISSN: 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
8756-5641
DOI: 10.1080/87565649709540671
OpenAlex: W2149568429
Cited by: 316
References: 62
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 6.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Boston College
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, preschool children, neuropsychological performance, academic performance, motor control, working memory, executive function, neuromaturation, behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, verbal learning and memory

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Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

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