Cited by 316Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

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Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Mariani, Mary Ann, Barkley, Russell A.·1997·Developmental Neuropsychology

DOI 10.1080/87565649709540671

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Abstract

We compared 34 preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to 30 community comparison boys without behavioral problems on a battery of neuropsychological and academic achievement tests along with behavioral observations. The battery of 25 measures was reduced to 4 dimensions through dimensional (factor) analysis. Comparison of the 2 groups revealed that boys with ADHD performed more poorly than comparison boys on 2 of the 4 dimensions, these being motor control and working memory‐persistence. No differences were found on the dimensions of verbal learning‐memory or picture identification‐factual knowledge. The results suggest that achievement problems are evident early in development in clinic‐referred children with ADHD and may be related to deficiencies in more fundamental neuropsychological functions. These early deficits in motor control and working memory seem to be an inherent part of ADHD, supporting both the neuromaturational nature of the disorder and current efforts to more broadly conceptualize it as involving deficits in executive functions beyond the core problems in behavioral inhibition and sustained attention.

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Pauli-Pott, U., & Becker, K. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.02.005 · Cited by 164
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: characteristics, interventions and models
Paule, M. G., Rowland, A. S., Ferguson, S. A., Chelonis, J. J., Tannock, R., Swanson, J. M., & Castellanos, F. X. (2000) · Neurotoxicology and Teratology · doi:10.1016/s0892-0362(00)00095-7 · Cited by 130
Overview of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in young children
Singh, A., Yeh, C. J., Verma, N., & Das, A. K. (2015) · Health Psychology Research · doi:10.4081/hpr.2015.2115 · Cited by 148
Assessment of Attention in Preschoolers
Mahone, E. M., & Schneider, H. E. (2012) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-012-9217-y · Cited by 148
“Barkley and colleagues also found significant group differences between preschool boys with and without ADHD on the Hand Movement subtest (Mariani and Barkley 1997).”
BackgroundMethod
Varieties of preschool hyperactivity: multiple pathways from risk to disorder
Sonuga‐Barke, E. J. S., Auerbach, J., Campbell, S. B., Daley, D., & Thompson, M. (2005) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00401.x · Cited by 124
Support for an independent familial segregation of executive and intelligence endophenotypes in ADHD families
Rommelse, N. N. J., Altink, M. E., Oosterlaan, J., Buschgens, C. J. M., Buitelaar, J. K., & Sergeant, J. A. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708002869 · Cited by 129
“Executive functioning (EF) is probably the most extensively studied domain in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (APA, 1994; Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996 ; Clark et al. 2000 ; Sergeant et al. 2002 ; Seidman et al. 2004 ; Boonstra et al. 2005; Willcutt et al. 2005 ; Doyle, 2006).”
Background
Theories of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Barkley, R. A. (1999) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4881-2_13 · Cited by 126
Self-citation
A test of the integrity of the components of Baddeley's model of working memory in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Karatekin, C. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00285.x · Cited by 124
ADHD Subtypes and Co-Occurring Anxiety, Depression, and Oppositional-Defiant Disorder: Differences in Gordon Diagnostic System and Wechsler Working Memory and Processing Speed Index Scores
Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Chase, G. A., Mink, D. M., & Stagg, R. E. (2009) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054708320402 · Cited by 120
“…observations, performance tests, and ADHD diagnosis (Barkley et al., 1990; Barkley et al., 1992; Barkley & Grodzinsky, 1994; Fischer, Newby, & Gordon, 1995; Gordon & Mettelman, 1987; Loge, Staton, & Beatty, 1990; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Mayes & Calhoun, 2002; Mayes, Calhoun, & Crowell, 2001).”
Psychiatric and Psychological Morbidity as a Function of Adaptive Disability in Preschool Children with Aggressive and Hyperactive-Impulsive-Inattentive Behavior
Shelton, T. L., Barkley, R. A., Crosswait, C., Moorehouse, M., Fletcher, K. E., Barrett, S., Jenkins, L., & Metevia, L. (1998) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1023/a:1022603902905 · Cited by 129
“…various forms of psychiatric, psychological, and educational morbidity found in association with the AHII behavior pattern in this preschool age group, an age group of children about which far less is currently known than is the case with school-age ADHD or AHII children (Mariani & Barkley, 1997).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Memory functioning in children with reading disabilities and/or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a clinical investigation of their working memory and long-term memory functioning
Kibby, M. Y., & Cohen, M. J. (2008) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297040701821752 · Cited by 118
“…dysfunction, children with ADHD often have deficits in WM, particularly in the central executive, with sparing of the phonological loop and visual-spatial sketchpad (Barkley, 1997; Denckla, 1996; Douglas & Benezra, 1990; Korkman & Pesonen, 1994; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Shue & Douglas, 1992).”
Background
ADHD symptoms in children with mild intellectual disability.
Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Wood, N., Gringras, P., & Chadwick, O. (2007) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e3180323330 · Cited by 119
“It has long been recognized that children with ADHD have as a group IQs that are roughly 7 to 12 points below the population mean (Crosbie and Schachar, 2001; Mariani and Barkley, 1997).”
Background
The Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch): Patterns of Performance in Children With ADHD and Clinical Controls
Heaton, S. C., Reader, S. K., Preston, A. S., Fennell, E. B., Puyana, O. E., Gill, N., & Johnson, J. H. (2001) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/chin.7.4.251.8736 · Cited by 116
“There have also been studies that have not found significant differences in the performance of children with ADHD compared to controls (Grodzinsky & Diamond, 1992; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; McGee, Williams, Moffitt, & Anderson, 1989).”
Result
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review of the essential facts
Daley, D. (2006) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00572.x · Cited by 115
The course of neuropsychological functions in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder from late childhood to early adolescence
Drechsler, R., Brandeis, D., Földényi, M., Imhof, K., & Steinhausen, H. (2005) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00384.x · Cited by 112
An Embodied Account of Early Executive-Function Development
Gottwald, J. M., Achermann, S., Marciszko, C., Lindskog, M., & Gredebäck, G. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797616667447 · Cited by 132
“…and motor deficits share a large degree of comorbidity in a range of clinical diagnoses, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Mariani & Barkley, 1997), autism spectrum disorder (Ekberg, Falck-Ytter, Bölte, Gredebäck, & EASE Team, 2016), and depression (Marvel & Paradiso,…”
Background
Interrelations Between Executive Function and Symptoms of Hyperactivity/Impulsivity and Inattention in Preschoolers: A Two Year Longitudinal Study
Brocki, K. C., Eninger, L., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9354-9 · Cited by 111
“In contrast, relations between WM deficits and ADHD symptoms in preschoolers have been inconsistent, with some studies reporting significant correlations (Mariani and Barkley 1997; Sonuga-Barke et al. 2003; Thorell and Wahlstedt 2006), whereas others have reported a lack of it (Brocki et al.”
Result
The Predictive Power of Combined Neuropsychological Measures for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children
Perugini, E. M., Harvey, E. A., Lovejoy, D. W., Sandstrom, K. A., & Webb, A. H. (2000) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/chin.6.2.101.7059 · Cited by 108
“This finding stands in contrast with that previously reported for both children (Mariani & Barkley, 1997) and adults (Jenkins et al., 1996), where impairment on the Digits Backwards task was more pronounced for those with ADHD.”
ResultInfluential
Prediction of Heterogeneity in Intelligence and Adult Prognosis by Genetic Polymorphisms in the Dopamine System Among Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Mill, J. S., Caspi, A., Williams, B. S., Craig, I., Taylor, A., Polo-Tomás, M., Berridge, C. W., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.462 · Cited by 104
“Behavioural inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD.”
BackgroundInfluential
An Open Trial of a Metacognitive Executive Function Training for Young Children With ADHD
Tamm, L., Nakonezny, P. A., & Hughes, C. W. (2014) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712445782 · Cited by 98
Hyperactive Child Syndrome and Estimated Life Expectancy at Young Adult Follow-Up: The Role of ADHD Persistence and Other Potential Predictors
Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M. (2018) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718816164 · Cited by 111
Self-citation
Executive Function in Pediatric Bipolar Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: In Search of Distinct Phenotypic Profiles
Walshaw, P. D., Alloy, L. B., & Sabb, F. W. (2010) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9126-x · Cited by 105
“C=16 Mariani and Barkley (1997) ADHD=34 .46b - - - - - - - - - -”
Improved Working Memory Performance through Self-Regulation of Dorsal Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Activation Using Real-Time fMRI
Zhang, G., Yao, L., Zhang, H., Long, Z., & Zhao, X. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073735 · Cited by 98
Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: The Science of Early-Life Precursors and Interventions for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Shephard, E., Zuccolo, P. F., Idrees, I., Godoy, P. B. G., Salomone, E., Ferrante, C., Sorgato, P., Catão, L. F. C. C., Goodwin, A., Bolton, P., et al. (2021) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.03.016 · Cited by 96
Psychometric Characteristics of a Measure of Emotional Dispositions Developed to Test a Developmental Propensity Model of Conduct Disorder
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B. E., Chronis, A. M., Jones, H. A., Williams, S. H., Loney, J., & Waldman, I. D. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410802359635 · Cited by 104
“During the baseline assessment, children also were observed in the ‘‘forbidden toy task,’’ which is part of the Structured Observation of Academic and Play Settings (Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Roberts, 1990), which has been found to reliably distinguish hyperactive from comparison children (Roberts, 1990).”
Influential
Inhibitory Deficits, Delay Aversion and Preschool AD/HD:Implications for the Dual Pathway Model
Dalen, L., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Hall, M., & Remington, B. (2004) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/np.2004.1 · Cited by 122
Association of Fluid Intelligence and Psychiatric Disorders in a Population-Representative Sample of US Adolescents
Keyes, K. M., Platt, J., Kaufman, A. S., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2016) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3723 · Cited by 96
“Lower IQ has been documented amongyouthswith thesedisorders inclinical samples.(16-28,64,65) Our population estimates indicate thatmean IQwas approximately one-third of a standard deviation (approximately 5 points) lower than average among youths with bipolar disorder, behavior disorders, and substance abuse.”
Assessing ADHD symptoms in children and adults: evaluating the role of objective measures
Emser, T. S., Johnston, B. A., Steele, J. D., Kooij, S., Thorell, L., & Christiansen, H. (2018) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/s12993-018-0143-x · Cited by 89
“This is not surprising as the children with ADHD had lower IQ, which is known to be typical for this population [56, 57].”
Background
The disturbing effect of irrelevant information on arithmetic problem solving in inattentive children
Marzocchi, G. M., Lucangeli, D., De Meo, T., Fini, F., & Cornoldi, C. (2002) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2101_4 · Cited by 86
“Findings are also in agreement with neuropsychological observations (Kempton et al., 1999; Klorman et al., 1999; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Shallice et al., this issue) which show that all these cognitive components involve partially overlapping neurological structures and that the same structures…”
BackgroundResult
Time Estimation and Performance on Reproduction Tasks in Subtypes of Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Bauermeister, J. J., Barkley, R. A., Martinez, J. V., Cumba, E., Ramirez, R. R., Reina, G., Matos, M., & Salas, C. C. (2005) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_14 · Cited by 86
“…deficits consistently seen in children with ADHD and (b) that these executive-function deficits often remain even after the questionable practice of controlling for level of IQ (Klorman et al., 1999; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Murphy et al., 2001; Nigg, 1999; Nigg, Hinshaw, Carte, & Treuting, 1998).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Continuity of aggressive antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: The question of phenotype definition
Hofvander, B., Ossowski, D., Lundström, S., & Anckarsäter, H. S. (2009) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.004 · Cited by 89
“Moffitt, T. E. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: boys' developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Dev, 61(3), 893-910. Moffitt, T. E., & Henry B. (1991). Neuropsychological studies of juvenile delinquency and juvenile violence. In J.S. Milner (Ed.), Neuropsychology of aggression…”
BackgroundInfluential
Low‐ and high‐level controlled processing in executive motor control tasks in 5–6‐year‐old children at risk of ADHD
Kalff, A. C., de Sonneville, L. M. J., Hurks, P. P. M., Hendriksen, J. G. M., Kroes, M., FERON, F. J. M., Steyaert, J. G., Zeben, T. M. C. B. V., Vles, J. S. H., & Jolles, J. (2003) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00189 · Cited by 88
“Most studies on ADHD have involved only schoolaged children and there is little information on the characteristics of ADHD in younger children (Mariani & Barkley, 1997).”
Background
Atypical Brain Activation During Simple & Complex Levels of Processing in Adult ADHD: An fMRI Study
Sigi Hale, T., Bookheimer, S., McGough, J. J., Phillips, J. M., & McCracken, J. T. (2007) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054706294101 · Cited by 84
“This notion is supported by behavioral results showing that consistent deficits in ADHD are, in fact, limited to the backward condition (Barkley, Murphy, & Kwasnik, 1996; Biederman et al., 1996; Faraone et al., 1993; Loge, Staton, & Beatty, 1990; Mariani & Barkley, 1997; Milich & Loney, 1979).”
Result
Biological contributions to the presentation and understanding of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review
Bradley, J. D., & Golden, C. J. (2001) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(00)00073-8 · Cited by 83
Training executive function in preschoolers reduce externalizing behaviors
Volckaert, A., & Noël, M. (2015) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2015.02.001 · Cited by 97
“In both populations, it is mainly inhibition that correlates with EB: there is generally a higher error rate in inhibition tasks in children with more EB [10–20].”
Background
The Construct Validity of The Tower of London DX As a Measure of The Executive Functioning of ADHD Children
Culbertson, W. C., & Zillmer, E. A. (1998) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/107319119800500302 · Cited by 86
Self-regulation and social and behavioral functioning following childhood traumatic brain injury
Ganesalingam, K., Sanson, A. V., Anderson, V. A., & Yeates, K. O. (2006) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617706060796 · Cited by 81
Neurocognitive Impairments in Nonpsychotic Parents of Children With Schizophrenia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Asarnow, R. F., Nuechterlein, K. H., Subotnik, K. L., Fogelson, D. L., Torquato, R. D., Payne, D. L., Asamen, J. K., Mintz, J., & Guthrie, D. (2002) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.11.1053 · Cited by 79
“Degradation of the stimuli resulted in digits appearing extremely blurred and indistinct.(36) Subjects were given 480 trials in an 8-minute vigilance period.”
Method
Neurocognitive Performance of 5- and 6-Year-Old Children Who Met Criteria for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder at 18 Months Follow-Up: Results from a Prospective Population Study
Kalff, A. C., Hendriksen, J. G. M., Kroes, M., Vles, J. S. H., Steyaert, J. G., FERON, F. J. M., Zeben, T. M. C. B. V., & Jolles, J. (2002) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1023/a:1020859629994 · Cited by 76

Authors: Mariani, M. A., & Barkley, R. A.
Affiliations: University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School (US)
ORCID: Barkley, Russell A.
Venue: Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1997-01
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
Pages: 111-129
ISSN: 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
8756-5641
DOI: 10.1080/87565649709540671
OpenAlex: W2149568429
Cited by: 316
References: 62
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 6.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Boston College
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, preschool children, neuropsychological performance, academic performance, motor control, working memory, executive function, neuromaturation, behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, verbal learning and memory

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Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

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