Data augmentation for self-paced motor imagery classification with C-LSTM.
Open accessAbstract
Objective. Brain–computer interfaces (BCI) are becoming important tools for assistive technology, particularly through the use of motor imagery (MI) for aiding task completion. However, most existing methods of MI classification have been applied in a trial-wise fashion, with window sizes of approximately 2 s or more. Application of this type of classifier could cause a delay when switching between MI events. Approach. In this study, state-of-the-art classification methods for motor imagery are assessed offline with considerations for real-time and self-paced control, and a convolutional long-short term memory (C-LSTM) network based on filter bank common spatial patterns (FBCSP) is proposed. In addition, the effects of several methods of data augmentation on different classifiers are explored. Main results. The results of this study show that the proposed network achieves adequate results in distinguishing between different control classes, but both considered deep learning models are still less reliable than a Riemannian MDM classifier. In addition, controlled skewing of the data and the explored data augmentation methods improved the average overall accuracy of the classifiers by 14.0% and 5.3%, respectively. Significance. This manuscript is among the first to attempt combining convolutional and recurrent neural network layers for the purpose of MI classification, and is also one of the first to provide an in-depth comparison of various data augmentation methods for MI classification. In addition, all of these methods are applied on smaller windows of data and with consideration to ambient data, which provides a more realistic test bed for real-time and self-paced control.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Noise injection, multiplication, flip, and frequency shift DA yielded an average classification accuracy improvement of 14.0% for MI EEG.
“Results show average classification accuracy could obtain 14.0% improvement after DA.”
From Data Augmentation for Deep Neural Networks Model in EEG Classification Task: A Review (2021) · cites this paper as Freer and Yang, 2019
Cites
Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., & Sun, J. (2016) · 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.90 · Cited by 235,474 · see citing works
ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks
Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., & Hinton, G. E. (2017) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/3065386 · Cited by 112,155 · see citing works
Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735 · Cited by 102,318 · see citing works
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., & Hinton, G. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14539 · Cited by 84,126 · see citing works
Ultrastructural Characterization of the Lower Motor System in a Mouse Model of Krabbe Disease
Cappello, V., Marchetti, L., Parlanti, P., Landi, S., Tonazzini, I., Cecchini, M., Piazza, V., & Gemmi, M. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-016-0001-8 · Cited by 13,097 · see citing works
Show and tell: A neural image caption generator
Vinyals, O., Toshev, A., Bengio, S., & Erhan, D. (2015) · 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2015.7298935 · Cited by 6,318 · see citing works
Recurrent neural network based language model
Mikolov, T., Karafiát, M., Burget, L., Černocký, J., & Khudanpur, S. (2010) · Interspeech 2010 · doi:10.21437/interspeech.2010-343 · Cited by 5,390 · see citing works
EEGNet: a compact convolutional neural network for EEG-based brain-computer interfaces
Lawhern, V. J., Solon, A. J., Waytowich, N. R., Gordon, S. M., Hung, C. P., & Lance, B. J. (2018) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aace8c · Cited by 5,115 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For all of these applications, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) have been the most commonly proposed solution [9, 20, 18, 19, 21, 22], though several studies”
BackgroundDeep learning with convolutional neural networks for EEG decoding and visualization
Schirrmeister, R. T., Springenberg, J. T., Fiederer, L. D. J., Glasstetter, M., Eggensperger, K., Tangermann, M., Hutter, F., Burgard, W., & Ball, T. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23730 · Cited by 3,751 · see citing works
Long short-term memory recurrent neural network architectures for large scale acoustic modeling
Sak, H., Senior, A., & Beaufays, F. (2014) · Interspeech 2014 · doi:10.21437/interspeech.2014-80 · Cited by 2,973 · see citing works
Optimal spatial filtering of single trial EEG during imagined hand movement
Ramoser, H., Muller-Gerking, J., & Pfurtscheller, G. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/86.895946 · Cited by 2,457 · see citing works
A review of classification algorithms for EEG-based brain–computer interfaces: A 10 year update
Lotte, F., Bougrain, L., Cichocki, A., Clerc, M., Congedo, M., Rakotomamonjy, A., & Yger, F. (2018) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aab2f2 · Cited by 2,239 · see citing works
Motor imagery and direct brain-computer communication
Pfurtscheller, G., & Neuper, C. (2001) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.939829 · Cited by 1,990 · see citing works
MNE software for processing MEG and EEG data
Gramfort, A., Luessi, M., Larson, E., Engemann, D. A., Strohmeier, D., Brodbeck, C. J., Parkkonen, L. T., & Hämäläinen, M. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.10.027 · Cited by 1,924 · see citing works
Deep learning for electroencephalogram (EEG) classification tasks: a review
Craik, A., He, Y., & Contreras-Vidal, J. L. (2019) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab0ab5 · Cited by 1,758 · see citing works
Long-Term Recurrent Convolutional Networks for Visual Recognition and Description
Donahue, J., Hendricks, L. A., Rohrbach, M., Venugopalan, S., Guadarrama, S., Saenko, K., & Darrell, T. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2016.2599174 · Cited by 1,547 · see citing works
Deep learning-based electroencephalography analysis: a systematic review
Roy, Y., Banville, H., Albuquerque, I., Gramfort, A., Falk, T. H., & Faubert, J. (2019) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab260c · Cited by 1,532 · see citing works
Filter Bank Common Spatial Pattern (FBCSP) in Brain-Computer Interface
Ang, K. K., Chin, Z. Y., Zhang, H., & Guan, C. (2008) · 2008 IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence) · doi:10.1109/ijcnn.2008.4634130 · Cited by 1,514 · see citing works
Review of the BCI Competition IV
Tangermann, M., Müller, K.-R., Aertsen, A., Birbaumer, N., Braun, C., Brunner, C., Leeb, R., Mehring, C., Miller, K. J., Müller-Putz, G. R., et al. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00055 · Cited by 1,288 · see citing works
Filter Bank Common Spatial Pattern Algorithm on BCI Competition IV Datasets 2a and 2b
Ang, K. K., Chin, Z. Y., Wang, C., Guan, C., & Zhang, H. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2012.00039 · Cited by 1,264 · see citing works
An EEG-based brain-computer interface for cursor control
Wolpaw, J. R., McFarland, D. J., Neat, G. W., & Forneris, C. A. (1991) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/0013-4694(91)90040-b · Cited by 1,117 · see citing works
Spatial filter selection for EEG-based communication
McFarland, D. J., McCane, L. M., David, S. V., & Wolpaw, J. R. (1997) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s0013-4694(97)00022-2 · Cited by 937 · see citing works
Multiclass Brain–Computer Interface Classification by Riemannian Geometry
Barachant, A., Bonnet, S., Congedo, M., & Jutten, C. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2011.2172210 · Cited by 878 · see citing works
A novel deep learning approach for classification of EEG motor imagery signals
Tabar, Y. R., & Halici, U. (2017) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/14/1/016003 · Cited by 859 · see citing works
Learning Temporal Information for Brain-Computer Interface Using Convolutional Neural Networks
Sakhavi, S., Guan, C., & Yan, S. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems · doi:10.1109/tnnls.2018.2789927 · Cited by 655 · see citing works
Noninvasive Electroencephalogram Based Control of a Robotic Arm for Reach and Grasp Tasks
Meng, J., Zhang, S., Bekyo, A., Olsoe, J., Baxter, B., & He, B. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep38565 · Cited by 484 · cited 4× · see citing works
“While many MI decoding methods have been developed that can both achieve practical results [3] and improve our understanding of the brain [4], very”
MethodInfluentialElectroencephalographic (EEG) control of three-dimensional movement
McFarland, D. J., Sarnacki, W. A., & Wolpaw, J. R. (2010) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/3/036007 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Neuper, C., Scherer, R., Wriessnegger, S. C., & Pfurtscheller, G. (2009) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2008.11.015 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Riemannian Approaches in Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Review
Yger, F., Berar, M., & Lotte, F. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2016.2627016 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
A Deep Learning Scheme for Motor Imagery Classification based on Restricted Boltzmann Machines
Lu, N., Li, T., Ren, X., & Miao, H. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2016.2601240 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Single-trial EEG classification of motor imagery using deep convolutional neural networks
Tang, Z., Li, C., & Sun, S. (2016) · Optik · doi:10.1016/j.ijleo.2016.10.117 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Riemannian geometry applied to BCI classification
Barachant, A., Bonnet, S., Congedo, M., & Jutten, C. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15995-4_78 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
A Novel Deep Learning Approach With Data Augmentation to Classify Motor Imagery Signals
Zhang, Z., Duan, F., Solé‐Casals, J., Dinarès-Ferran, J., Cichocki, A. S., Yang, Z., & Sun, Z. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2895133 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Parallel convolutional-linear neural network for motor imagery classification
Sakhavi, S., Guan, C., & Yan, S. (2015) · European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO) · doi:10.1109/eusipco.2015.7362882 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Aznan, N. K. N., Atapour–Abarghouei, A., Bonner, S., Connolly, J. D., Moubayed, N. A., & Breckon, T. P. (2019) · International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN) · doi:10.1109/ijcnn.2019.8852227 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Discriminative Transfer Learning Using Similarities and Dissimilarities
Lu, Y., Chen, L., Saidi, A. S., Dellandréa, E., & Wang, Y. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems · doi:10.1109/tnnls.2017.2705760 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Dinarès-Ferran, J., Ortner, R., Guger, C., & Solé‐Casals, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00308 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Zhang, Q., & Liu, Y. (2018) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1806.07108 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Zhang, D., Yao, L., Zhang, X., Wang, S., Chen, W., & Boots, R. J. (2017) · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Generating Artificial EEG Signals To Reduce BCI Calibration Time
Lotte, F. (2011) · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Optimization of Single-Trial Detection of Event-Related Potentials Through Artificial Trials
Cecotti, H., Marathe, A. R., & Ries, A. J. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2015.2417054 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Data augmentation in Riemannian space for Brain-Computer Interfaces
Kalunga, E. K., Chevallier, S., & Barthélemy, Q. (2015) · HAL · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Image-based Motor Imagery EEG Classification using Convolutional Neural Network
Yang, T., Phua, K. S., Yu, J., Selvaratnam, T., Toh, V., Ng, W. H., Ang, K. K., & So, R. Q. (2019) · IEEE-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical and Health Informatics (BHI ...) · doi:10.1109/bhi.2019.8834598 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Adaptive Riemannian BCI for Enhanced Motor Imagery Training Protocols
Freer, D., Deligianni, F., & Yang, G. (2019) · Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks · doi:10.1109/bsn.2019.8771079 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationData from: Noninvasive electroencephalogram based control of a robotic arm for reach and grasp tasks
Meng, J., Zhang, S., Bekyo, A., Olsoe, J., Baxter, B., & He, B. (2016) · Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) · doi:10.5061/dryad.nh109 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Toward Real-time BCI Control of Assistive Robots: A Comparison of State-of-the-Art Methods
Freer, D., Ma, Y., & Yang, G. (2018) · Hamlyn Symposium on Medical Robotics (HSMR) · doi:10.31256/hsmr2018.28 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning Representations from EEG with Deep Recurrent-Convolutional Neural Networks
Bashivan, P., Rish, I., Yeasin, M., & Codella, N. (2015) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1511.06448
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 49 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Altaheri, H., Muhammad, G., Alsulaiman, M., Amin, S. U., Altuwaijri, G. A., Abdul, W., Bencherif, M. A., & Faisal, M. (2021) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-021-06352-5 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Data augmentation for deep-learning-based electroencephalography
Lashgari, E., Liang, D., & Maoz, U. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108885 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
CTNet: a convolutional transformer network for EEG-based motor imagery classification
Zhao, W., Jiang, X., Zhang, B., Xiao, S., & Weng, S. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-71118-7 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Li, Y., Guo, L., Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Meng, F. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2021.3099908 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Mattioli, F., Porcaro, C., & Baldassarre, G. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac4430 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
RetractedData augmentation for motor imagery signal classification based on a hybrid neural network.
Zhang, K., Xu, G., Han, Z., Ma, K., Zheng, X., Chen, L., Duan, N., & Zhang, S. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20164485 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Data Augmentation for Deep Neural Networks Model in EEG Classification Task: A Review
He, C., Liu, J., Zhu, Y., & Du, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.765525 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Freer and Yang (2019) proposed a convolutional long-short term memory network (CLSTM) to execute binary classification for MI EEG.”
BackgroundReview of brain encoding and decoding mechanisms for EEG-based brain–computer interface
Xu, L., Xu, M.-P., Jung, T., & Dong, M. (2021) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-021-09676-z · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Sample-Based Data Augmentation Based on Electroencephalogram Intrinsic Characteristics
Li, R., Wang, L., Suganthan, P. N., & Sourina, O. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2022.3185587 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
An in-depth survey on Deep Learning-based Motor Imagery Electroencephalogram (EEG) classification
Wang, X., Liesaputra, V., Liu, Z., Wáng, Y., & Huang, Z. (2023) · Artificial Intelligence in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2023.102738 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Bird, J. J., Pritchard, M., Fratini, A., Ekárt, A., & Faria, D. R. (2021) · IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters · doi:10.1109/lra.2021.3056355 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
A Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory-Based Neural Network for Epilepsy Detection From EEG
Tawhid, M. N. A., Siuly, S., & Li, T. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2022.3217515 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Wang, X., Hersche, M., Magno, M., & Luca Benini, C. (2024) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2024.3353146 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Ko, W., Jeon, E., Jeong, S., Phyo, J., & Suk, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.643386 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
CLEP: Contrastive Learning for Epileptic Seizure Prediction Using a Spatio-Temporal-Spectral Network
Guo, L., Yu, T., Zhao, S., Xiaoli Li, A., Liao, X., & Li, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2023.3322275 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
A Survey on Deep Learning Classification Algorithms for Motor Imagery
Guragai, B., AlShorman, O., Masadeh, M., & Heyat, M. B. B. (2020) · doi:10.1109/icm50269.2020.9331503 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
A multiscale feature fusion network based on attention mechanism for motor imagery EEG decoding
Gao, D., Yang, W. T., Li, P., Liu, S., Liu, T., Wang, M., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2023.111129 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Data augmentation strategies for EEG-based motor imagery decoding
George, O., Smith, R. O., Madiraju, P., Yahyasoltani, N., & Ahamed, S. I. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10240 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Nagasawa, T., Sato, T., Nambu, I., & Wada, Y. (2020) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ab6cb9 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Lee, M., Jeong, J.-H., Kim, Y., & Lee, S. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2021.3087506 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Multi-Source Decentralized Transfer for Privacy-Preserving BCIs
Zhang, W., Wang, Z., & Wu, D. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2022.3207494 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Generalized Contrastive Partial Label Learning for Cross-Subject EEG-Based Emotion Recognition
Li, W., Fan, L., Shao, S., & Song, A. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2024.3398103 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Ahuja, C. K., & Sethia, D. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1421922 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Channel reflection: Knowledge-driven data augmentation for EEG-based brain–computer interfaces
Wang, Z., Li, S., Luo, J., Liu, J., & Wu, D. (2024) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2024.106351 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Liu, J., Ye, F., & Xiong, H. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac1ed0 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
RetractedClassification of fNIRS Finger Tapping Data With Multi-Labeling and Deep Learning
Sommer, N. M., Kakillioglu, B., Grant, T., Velipasalar, S., & Hirshfield, L. (2021) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2021.3115405 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
SessionNet: Feature Similarity-Based Weighted Ensemble Learning for Motor Imagery Classification
Lee, B.-H., Jeong, J.-H., & Lee, S. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3011140 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Han, J., Gu, X., Yang, G., & Lo, B. P. L. (2023) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2023.3337072 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationDiffusion models-based motor imagery EEG sample augmentation via mixup strategy
Luo, T.-J., & Cai, Z. (2024) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2024.125585 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
A multi-view CNN encoding for motor imagery EEG signals
Zhang, J., & Li, K. (2023) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2023.105063 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
MSFNet: A Multi-Scale Space-Time Frequency Fusion Network for Motor Imagery EEG Classification
Wang, C., Wu, Y., Wang, C., Ren, Y., Shen, J., Pang, T., Chan, C. S., Ren, W., & Yu, Y. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3351204 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A Local-Ascending-Global Learning Strategy for Brain-Computer Interface
Gao, D., Zhang, H., Li, P., Tang, T., Liu, S., Zhou, Z., Ying, S., Zhu, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2024) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v38i9.28867 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Objective Pain Assessment Using Deep Learning Through EEG-Based Brain–Computer Interfaces
Al-Nafjan, A., Alshehri, H., & Aldayel, M. S. (2025) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology14020210 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Deep-Learning-Based Automatic Selection of Fewest Channels for Brain–Machine Interfaces
Kim, H.-S., Ahn, M.-H., & Min, B. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/tcyb.2021.3052813 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Studies to Overcome Brain–Computer Interface Challenges
Choi, W.-S., & Yeom, H. G. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12052598 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Classification of BCI Multiclass Motor Imagery Task Based on Artificial Neural Network
Echtioui, A., Zouch, W., Ghorbel, M., Mhiri, C., & Hamam, H. (2023) · Clinical EEG and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/15500594221148285 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
R-WGAN-Based Multitimescale Enhancement Method for Predicting f-CaO Cement Clinker
Hao, X., Liu, L., Huang, G., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Dang, H. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2021.3126832 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Al-Qaysi, Z. T., Salih, M. M., Shuwandy, M. L., Ahmed, M. A., & Altarazi, Y. S. M. (2023) · Applied Data Science and Analysis · doi:10.58496/adsa/2023/007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Deep learning-based electroencephalic diagnosis of tinnitus symptom
Hong, E.-S., Kim, H.-S., Hong, S. K., Pantazis, D., & Min, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1126938 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Al-Qaysi, Z. T., Albahri, A. S., Ahmed, M. A., & Muhammed, S. M. (2023) · Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13246-023-01316-6 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
WLnet: Towards an Approach for Robust Workload Estimation Based on Shallow Neural Networks
Sun, Z., Li, B., Duan, F., Jia, H., Wang, S., Liu, Y., Cichocki, A. S., Caiafa, C. F., & Solé‐Casals, J. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3044732 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Active poisoning: efficient backdoor attacks on transfer learning-based brain-computer interfaces
Jiang, X., Meng, L., Li, S., & Wu, D. (2023) · Science China Information Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11432-022-3548-2 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Hu, Y., Li, W., Zhou, Y. Q., & Pham, D. T. (2024) · Advanced Engineering Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.aei.2024.102434 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Raoof, I., & Gupta, M. K. (2023) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-023-08927-w · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gao, C., Li, Z., Ora, H., & Miyake, Y. (2020) · IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM) · doi:10.1109/bibm49941.2020.9313238 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Khademi, S., Neghabi, M., Farahi, M., Shirzadi, M., & Marateb, H. R. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-91197-9.00004-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gordienko, Y. G., Gordienko, N., Taran, V., Rojbi, A., Telenyk, S., & Stirenko, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Neuroinformatics · doi:10.3389/fninf.2025.1521805 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Cross-Subject Motor Imagery Electroencephalogram Decoding with Domain Generalization
Zheng, Y., Wu, S., Chen, J., Yao, Q., & Zheng, S. (2025) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering12050495 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Riemannian Channel Selection for BCI With Between-Session Non-Stationarity Reduction Capabilities
Sadatnejad, K., & Lotte, F. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2022.3167262 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Niu, X., Lü, N., Yan, R., & Luo, H. (2024) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2024.106206 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Luo, J., Cheng, Q., Wang, H., Du, Q., Wang, Y., & Li, Y. (2024) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2024.3445971 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
ATGAN: attention-based temporal GAN for EEG data augmentation in personal identification
Zhang, S., Sun, L., Mao, X., Zhao, M., & Hu, Y. (2024) · EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing · doi:10.1186/s13634-024-01188-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Multiclass Classification Framework of Motor Imagery EEG by Riemannian Geometry Networks
Shi, Y., Jiang, A., Zhong, J., Li, M., & Zhu, Y. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2024.3496757 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Al-Hamadani, A. A., Mohammed, M. J., & Tariq, S. M. (2023) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-023-08944-9 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Virtual Electroencephalogram Acquisition: A Review on Electroencephalogram Generative Methods
You, Z., Guo, Y., Zhang, X., & Zhao, Y. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25103178 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Data-driven Data Augmentation for Motor Imagery Brain-Computer Interface
Lee, H. K., Lee, J.-H., Park, J.-O., & Choi, Y.-S. (2021) · International Conference on Information Networking · doi:10.1109/icoin50884.2021.9333908 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Collazos-Huertas, D. F., Velasquez-Martinez, L. F., Pérez-Nastar, H. D., Álvarez-Meza, A. M., & Castellanos-Dominguez, G. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21155105 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Guo, S., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, X., & Tang, B. (2025) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2025.107756 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Raoof, I., & Gupta, M. K. (2023) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-023-15900-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bispectrum-based hybrid neural network for motor imagery classification
Liu, C., Jin, J., Daly, I. P., Sun, H., Huang, Y., Wang, X., & Cichocki, A. S. (2022) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2022.109593 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Model and Data Dual-Driven Double-Point Observation Network for Ultra-Short MI EEG Classification
Niu, X., Lü, N., Yan, R., & Luo, H. (2024) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2024.3386565 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Eissa, T., Huber, M., Obermayer-Pietsch, B. M., Linkohr, B., Peters, A., Fleischmann, F., & Žigman, M. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae449 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Gated parallel feature fusion multi-task learning for motor imagery EEG classification
Wang, X., Liesaputra, V., & Huang, Z. (2025) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2025.128678 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Distribution Adaptive Feedback Training Method to Improve Human Motor Imagery Ability
Zhang, Y., Zhang, C., Jiang, R., Qiu, S., & He, H. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2025.3527629 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Stroke Motor Imagery Recognition based on EEG
Sun, Y., Li, J., Dong, G., Wang, Y., Li, H., Yang, Q., Guo, D., Zhang, Y., Leng, J., & Xu, F. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Electronic Information and Communication Technology (ICEICT) · doi:10.1109/iceict53123.2021.9531188 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kwon, J., & Min, B. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1545726 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ma, R., Cao, Y. K., Xie, S. Q., Zhang, M., Li, J., & Zhang, Z. (2025) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2025.131561 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Data alignment based adversarial defense benchmark for EEG-based BCIs
Chen, X., Jia, T., & Wu, D. (2025) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2025.107516 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Distributionally Robust Cross Subject EEG Decoding
Duan, T., Wang, Z., Doretto, G., Li, F., Tao, C., & Adjeroh, D. (2023) · Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications · doi:10.3233/faia230318 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Multi-model ensemble for motor imagery classification using factorization machine
Wen, K. (2022) · International Conference on Advanced Algorithms and Neural Networks (AANN) · doi:10.1117/12.2637171 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Lightweight Dual-Attention Neural Network for Robust and Efficient EEG Motor Imagery Decoding
Wang, G., Song, X., Jiang, L., Zhang, Y., Yao, D., Lu, J., Xu, P., & Li, F. (2026) · International Journal of Neural Systems · doi:10.1142/s0129065726500267 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
NIRS Data Augmentation Technique to Detect Hemodynamic Peaks During Self-Paced Motor Imagery
Ⅴ, Z. P., Paik, S.-H., Lee, S. H., Choi, E.-J., & Kim, B. (2023) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2023.3263489 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Motor imagery EEG classification method: based on a novel BiLSTM-Attention-CNN hybrid neural network
Chu, H., & Zhang, C. (2022) · International Conference on Signal Image Processing and Communication (ICSIPC) · doi:10.1117/12.2643730 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
ADAPTER: Auto-Augmentation for Emotion Recognition in EEG - A Class and Subject Invariant Approach
Ahuja, C. K., & Setia, D. (2023) · International Conference on Computing, Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT) · doi:10.1109/icccnt56998.2023.10308153 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The detection method of continuous outliers in complex network data streams based on C-LSTM
Shu, Z., & Li, X. (2024) · International Journal of Systems Assurance Engineering and Management · doi:10.1007/s13198-024-02475-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Impact of Non-Task-Related Neural Activity in EEG-Based Motor Imagery Classification
Bove, S., Giaquinto, M., Percannella, G., Saggese, A., & Vento, M. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Metrology for eXtended Reality, Artificial Intelligence and Neural Engineering (MetroXRAINE) · doi:10.1109/metroxraine66377.2025.11340334 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Shen, C., & Namiki, A. (2026) · Chaos Solitons & Fractals · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2026.118384 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
EEG-VAE: A Variational Autoencoder for EEG Data Augmentation and Classification
Li, Y., Zhao, Z., Chen, Z., Zhang, Y., & Yu, Y. (2025) · Asian Conference on Artificial Intelligence Technology (ACAIT) · doi:10.1109/acait67930.2025.11522647 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Method for automatic detection of movement-related EEG pattern time boundaries
Shcherban, I., Lazurenko, D., Shcherban, O., Shaposhnikov, D., Kirilenko, N. E., & Shustova, A. V. (2023) · Soft Computing - A Fusion of Foundations, Methodologies and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00500-023-08837-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cross-Site Generalization for Imbalanced Epileptic Classification
Abdallah, T., Jrad, N., Abdallah, F., Humeau‐Heurtier, A., & Bogaert, P. V. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp49357.2023.10094829 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Multi-Tire CNN Model for Motor Imagery Based UAV ControlPreprint
Alqaysi, Z., Shuwandy, M. L., Ahmed, M. S., Salih, M., & Altarazi, Y. S. M. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4162650 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Freer, D., & Yang, G. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2003.00369 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAdaptive Hausdorff Estimation of Movement-Related Eeg Patterns for Brain-Computer InterfacesPreprint
Щербань, И. В., Lazurenko, D. M., Shaposhnikov, D. G., Kirilenko, N. E., Shustova, A. V., & Kiroy, V. N. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3915013
Щербань, И. В., Lazurenko, D. M., Shaposhnikov, D. G., & Kirilenko, N. E. (2021) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91581-0_10
Handayani, T. P., Sudiro, S. A., Andayani, R., & Madenda, S. (2022) · International Conference of Computer Science and Information Technology (ICoSNIKOM) · doi:10.1109/icosnikom56551.2022.10034902
Analysis of Window-Delay Score for Data Augmentation Methods in Brain-Computer Interfaces
Maurício, J. S. S., Amorim, M. M., Vieira, A. B., Bernardino, H. S., & de Souza, G. H. (2024) · doi:10.5753/eniac.2024.245225
An EEG Dataset of Word-level Brain Responses for Semantic Text Relevance
Gryshchuk, V., Spapé, M., Maistro, M., Lioma, C., & Ruotsalo, T. (2025) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3726302.3730289
A Spatial-Temporal Attention-Based Multi-Scale Feature Extraction Network for Motor Imagery Decoding
Ren, Z., & Qi, P. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Robotics and Bionics · doi:10.1109/tmrb.2025.3617978
Self-organized phase-locked component pair learning in motor imagery classification
Niu, X., Lü, N., Luo, H., & Yan, R. (2025) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2025.114250
Data Distribution Evolution for Robust EEG Emotion Recognition With Limited Data Resource
Duan, T., Wang, Z., Shen, L., Niu, S., Doretto, G., Adjeroh, D., & Tao, C. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2026.3684827
Feature-Space Conditional Data Augmentation for Motor Imagery EEG Classification
Chen, Z., Zhang, Y., Hu, J., Yu, Y., & Zeng, L. (2026) · International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Signal Processing (ICSP) · doi:10.1109/icsp69961.2026.11540908
Subburaman, G., & Selvadurai, M. V. (2026) · Remote Sensing Applications Society and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rsase.2026.102154
Multimodal emotion recognition using hybrid deep learning architecture
Kothari, N. S., More, S. A., & Jadhav, D. N. S. (2026) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2026.116761
Li, W., Hu, Y., Zhou, Y., & Pham, D. T. (2026) · Springer series in advanced manufacturing · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-20817-0_10
Deb, A., Shahnaz, C., Fattah, S. A., & Saquib, M. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2026.3727566
cGAN-Based Data Augmentation in Latent Space for Seismology
Luders-Ledezma, R., Pino, O. V., & Yoma, N. B. (2026) · IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters · doi:10.1109/lgrs.2026.3732281
- Authors
- Freer, D., & Yang, G.-Z.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Freer, Daniel
- Venue
- Journal of Neural Engineering
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2020-01-31
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 016041
- ISSN
- 1741-2552 (ISSN-L)
- 1741-2560
- OpenAlex
- W2986650563
- Cited by
- 96
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 5.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neural Engineering (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/R026092/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology
- Keywords
- motor imagery classification, brain-computer interface, real-time control, convolutional LSTM, filter bank common spatial pattern, data augmentation, ambient data
- MeSH terms
- Data Science, Humans, Imagination, Motor Cortex, Movement, Brain-Computer Interfaces
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review