What's the use of 'triadic dialogue'?: an investigation of teacher-student interaction
Abstract
The fact that the spoken texts of classroom interaction - particularly those involving the teacher with the whole class - are co-constructed relatively smoothly, despite the number of participants involved, suggests that they are organized in terms of standard strategies, embodied in typical forms of discourse that have evolved for responding to recurring types of rhetorical situation (Miller 1984; Kamberelis 1995). That is to say that, like written texts, they can be thought of as being constructed according to one of a set of educational genre specifications. One such rhetorical structure, the ubiquitous 'triadic dialogue' (Lemke 1990), also known as the IRE or IRF sequence (Mehan 1979; Sinclair and Coulthard 1975). It has attracted considerable attention in recent years, and has variously been seen as, on the one hand, essential for the co-construction of cultural knowledge (Heap 1985; Newman et al. 1989) and, on the other, as antithetical to the educational goal of encouraging students' intellectual-discursive initiative and creativity (Lemke 1990; Wood 1992). Drawing on episodes of teacher-whole-class interaction collected during a collaborative action research project, this paper will show, however, that the same basic IRF structure can take a variety of forms and be recruited by teachers for a wide variety of functions, depending on the goal of the activity that the discourse serves to mediate and, in particular, on the use that is made of the follow-up move.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
(1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 53,488 · see citing works
DEWEY, J. M. (1986) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131728609335764 · Cited by 13,568 · see citing works
A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974) · Language · doi:10.2307/412243 · Cited by 11,350 · see citing works
Speech Genres and Other Late Essays
Bakhtin, M. M. (1986) · University of Texas Press eBooks · doi:10.7560/720466 · Cited by 9,079 · see citing works
Talking science: language, learning, and values
Lemke, J. L. (1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-5211 · Cited by 4,000 · see citing works
Miller, C. R. (1984) · Quarterly Journal of Speech · doi:10.1080/00335638409383686 · Cited by 2,907 · see citing works
(1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,399 · see citing works
The concept of activity in Soviet psychology
Kozulin, A. (2002) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203434185-9 · Cited by 2,114 · see citing works
Book Reviews: Learning Lessons: Social Organization in the Classroom by Hugh Mehan
Hawkins, D. F., & Mehan, H. (1979) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.2307/1164149 · Cited by 2,101 · see citing works
Towards an analysis of discourse : the English used by teachers and pupils
Sinclair, J. M., & Coulthard, R. M. (1975) · Oxford University Press eBooks · Cited by 1,966 · see citing works
Dialogic inquiry towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education
Wells, G. A. (1999) · Cited by 1,925 · see citing works
From communication to curriculum
Barnes, D. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,299 · see citing works
MacNeilley, L. H. (1998) · Language · doi:10.2307/417942 · Cited by 1,237 · see citing works
(1996) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,176 · see citing works
Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Implications and Applications of Sociohistorical Psychology
Mathews, P. V., & Moll, L. C. (1991) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3120999 · Cited by 1,059 · see citing works
Tannen, D. (1981) · Language · doi:10.2307/413709 · Cited by 940 · see citing works
Developing understanding of the idea of communities of learners
Rogoff, B. (1994) · Mind Culture and Activity · doi:10.1080/10749039409524673 · Cited by 917 · see citing works
The Problem of Activity in Psychology
Леонтьев, А. Н. (1974) · Soviet Psychology · doi:10.2753/rpo1061-040513024 · Cited by 666 · see citing works
Wells, G. A. (1993) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/s0898-5898(05)80001-4 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
(1990) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Kramsch, C., Coulthard, M., & Montgomery, M. (1983) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/327114 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Non scolae sed vitae discimus: Toward overcoming the encapsulation of school learning
Engeström, Y. (1991) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/0959-4752(91)90006-t · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Implications of postmodernism for science, or, science as progressive discourse
Bereiter, C. (1994) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2901_1 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Thinking voices : the work of the National Oracy Project
Norman, K. (1992) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Computers and talk in the primary classroom
Wegerif, R., & Scrimshaw, P. (1997) · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Discourse in the Production of Classroom Knowledge: Reading Lessons
Heap, J. L. (1985) · Curriculum Inquiry · doi:10.1080/03626784.1985.11075966 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Using the Tool-Kit of Discourse in the Activity of Learning and Teaching
Wells, G. A. (1996) · Mind Culture and Activity · doi:10.1207/s15327884mca0302_2 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Student Engagement: When Recitation Becomes Conversation.
Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (1990) · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Making Room for Students: Sharing Teacher Authority in Room 104
Oyler, C. (1996) · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Wertsch, J. V. (1993) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674045101 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Giving Children Control: Fourth Graders Initiate and Sustain Discussions After Teacher Read-alouds
Donoahue, Z. (1998) · Networks An Online Journal for Teacher Research · doi:10.4148/2470-6353.1251 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
From Guessing to Predicting: Progressive Discourse in the Learning and Teaching of Science
Wells, G. A. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511605895.008 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 34 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cognitive and Sociocultural Perspectives: Two Parallel SLA Worlds?
Zuengler, J., & Miller, E. R. (2006) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/40264510 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
“…taking sociocultural perspectives have examined classroom interactions or discourse patterns with an eye toward identifying those that best facilitate student participation (Gutierrez, Rymes, & Larsen, 1995; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Nystrand, Gamoran, Zeiser, & Long, 2003; Tharp & Gallimore, 1991).”
BackgroundMaking semantic waves: A key to cumulative knowledge-building
Maton, K. (2013) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2012.11.005 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Wells, G., & Arauz, R. M. (2006) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1503_3 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“In general, however, there was little systematic difference between science and arts topics (Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThird turn position in teacher talk: Contingency and the work of teaching
Lee, Y.-A. (2006) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2006.02.004 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Kim, M., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (2019) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.02.003 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Semiotic Mediation, Dialogue and the Construction of Knowledge
Wells, G. A. (2007) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000106414 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
“…of launching the unit and planning subsequent activities, and episodes concerned with checking on what had been learned, tended to be characterized by shorter sequences of talk on a particular issue and a higher proportion of evaluative responses to student contributions [Nassaji & Wells, 2000].”
BackgroundDialogic inquiry in life science conversations of family groups in a museum
Ash, D. B. (2003) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.10069 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
6. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RESEARCH ON THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR
Nassaji, H., & Fotos, S. S. (2004) · Annual Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1017/s0267190504000066 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“These strategies are typical of ordinary conversation or teacher– students interaction in L1 subject-matter classrooms (see Nassaji & Wells, 2000 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWaring, H. Z. (2008) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00788.x · Cited by 247 · see citing works
The interactive work of prosody in the IRF exchange: Teacher repetition in feedback moves
Hellermann, J. (2002) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404503321049 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Materials in the classroom ecology
Guerrettaz, A. M., & Johnston, B. (2013) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12027.x · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“In general, the classroom discourse followed the predictable, teacher-controlled IRE (Initiation–Response– Evaluation) pattern that has been widely attested in the literature (e.g., Bellack et al., 1966; Mehan, 1979; Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
Third turn position in teacher talk: Contingency and the work of teaching
Lee, Y. (2007) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2006.11.003 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Jointly constructing semantic waves: Implications for teacher training
Macnaught, L., Maton, K., Martin, J. R., & Matruglio, E. (2013) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2012.11.008 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“It forms the basis of interactive guidance that can be freed of the quizzing and guessing routines which have been shown to dominate classroom interaction (Sinclair & Coulthard 1975; Mehan 1979; Edwards & Westgate 1987; Tharp & Gallimore 1991; Nystrand & Gamoran 1991; Nystrand 1997; van Lier 1996;…”
BackgroundHow Contingent Questioning Promotes Extended Student Talk: A Function of Display Questions
Boyd, M. P., & Rubin, D. L. (2006) · Journal of Literacy Research · doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3802_2 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
“Even when teachers substitute nonjudgmental follow-up for evaluation as the final move of this sequence (IRF instead of IRE), the consequence is to return control of the topic to the teacher after each student utterance; little chaining among student responses occurs (Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
BackgroundBringing pedagogy to doctoral publishing
Lee, A., & Kamler, B. (2008) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562510802334723 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
‘Would you like to tidy up now?’ An analysis of adult questioning in the English Foundation Stage
Siraj, I., & Manni, L. (2008) · Early Years Journal of International Research and Development · doi:10.1080/09575140701842213 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
“(Nassaji and Wells 2000, 33) More recently, Alexander (2004) has also cited research from developmental psychology, neuroscience and sociolinguistic research as well as a range of classroom studies to present ‘Dialogic Teaching’ as an approach that: … demands both pupil engagement and teacher…”
Background‘Being the Teacher’: Identity and Classroom Conversation
Richards, K. (2006) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/ami041 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“…nature of classroom talk and signs of a willingness to re-assess the pedagogic value of interaction patterns which had previously been seen by many as relatively unproductive in terms of language learning (e.g. Seedhouse 1996; Jarvis and Robinson 1997; Wells 1999: 167–208; Nassaji and Wells 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialOpening classroom interaction: the importance of feedback
Smith, H., & Higgins, S. (2006) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/03057640601048357 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“This is the view argued by Nassaji and Wells ( 2000 , p.”
BackgroundO’Connor, M. C., & Michaels, S. (2017) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2017.11.003 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Lin, A. M. Y., & Lo, Y. Y. (2016) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2016.1230125 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“The triadic dialogue can serve many different functions (Lin 2007; Nassaji and Wells 2000), some are more dialogic than others.”
BackgroundElicitation and Reformulation and Their Relationship With Learner Repair in Dyadic Interaction
Nassaji, H. (2007) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00427.x · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Self-citationAlozie, N. M., Moje, E. B., & Krajcik, J. S. (2009) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20365 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“To make discussions more dialogic and inquiry-based, Nassaji and Wells (2000) argued that altering the evaluative portion of the triadic dialogue to include nonjudgment evaluations, such as follow-up questions (IRF), moves discussions toward dialogic conversations.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMaking a Difference in Teacher Education Through Self-Study
Kosnik, C. (2005) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-3528-4 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Respecifying Display Questions: Interactional Resources for Language Teaching
Lee, Y.-A. (2006) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/40264304 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Pedagogical renewal: Improving the quality of classroom interaction in Nigerian primary schools
Hardman, F., Abd‐Kadir, J., & Smith, F. (2007) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2007.02.008 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Positive evaluation of student answers in classroom instruction
Margutti, P., & Drew, P. (2014) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2014.898650 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“…as the hallmark of conventional pedagogic discourse (also referred to as ‘triadic dialogue’ and ‘recitation’), responsible for engendering pupils’ low level of communicative engagement (Mercer 1995; Nassaji and Wells 2000; Nystrand et al. 2003; Alexander 2008; Mercer et al. 2009; Lyle 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialLanguage acquisition in foreign language contexts and the differential benefits of interaction
Philp, J., & Tognini, R. (2009) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral.2009.011 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Redressing the Roles of Correction and Repair in Research on Second and Foreign Language Learning
Hall, J. K. (2007) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00619.x · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Molinari, L., Mameli, C., & Gnisci, A. (2012) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.2012.02071.x · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Speaking out of turn? Taking the initiative in teacher-fronted classroom interaction
Garton, S. (2012) · Classroom Discourse · doi:10.1080/19463014.2012.666022 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Recent research has shifted more towards focusing in particular on looking at how teacher talk can best support learning, through, for example, the use of the F-move (Jarvis and Robinson 1997; Cullen 1998, 2002; Nassaji and Wells 2000; Kasper 2001; Walsh 2002).”
BackgroundAutomatic classification of activities in classroom discourse
Wang, Z., Pan, X., Miller, K., & Cortina, K. (2014) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.010 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Lin, A. M. Y., & Wu, Y. (2014) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2014.988113 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“…type items as possible in a session), Jenny starts off a series of Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) triadic dialogues (Heap 1985; Lin 2007; Mehan 1979; Nassaji and Wells 2000; Sinclair and Coulthard 1975) to engage students in explaining how one can prove that air takes up space and has mass.”
Teachers’ English Proficiency and Classroom Language Use: A Conversation Analysis Study
Canh, L. V., & Renandya, W. A. (2017) · RELC Journal · doi:10.1177/0033688217690935 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Each sequence consists of an exchange and each exchange consists of obligatory Initiating and Responding moves and may also contain a Follow up move (Nassaji and Wells, 2000: 383).”
Classroom Discourse in Foreign Language Classrooms: A Review of the Literature
Thoms, J. J. (2012) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2012.01177.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Changing pedagogical practice in Kenyan primary schools: the impact of school‐based training
Hardman, F., Abd‐Kadir, J., Agg, C., et al. (2009) · Comparative Education · doi:10.1080/03050060802661402 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“1997 ; Nassaji and Wells 2000 ; Alexander 2001 , Abd‐Kadir and Hardman 2007 ).”
Democratising the classroom: a literacy pedagogy for the new generation
Rose, D. H. (2005) · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Margutti, P. (2006) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2006.12.002 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“…recognized (Sinclair and Coulthard, 1975; Mehan, 1979; Cazden, 1986; French and McLure, 1981; Wilkinson, 1982; McHoul, 1978; Levinson, 1992; Mercer, 1995; Galton et al., 1999; Nassaji and Wells, 2000; Nystrand et al., 2003) and which is claimed, by some, to have come down all the way from Socrates.”
BackgroundMargutti, P. (2010) · Research on Language and Social Interaction · doi:10.1080/08351813.2010.497629 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“…1979a; Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975), the so-called ubiquity of the three-part model has been generally considered the template for instruction talk-in-interaction (Drew, 1981; Hellerman, 2003, 2005; Lerner, 1995; McHoul, 1978; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Nystrand, Wu, Gamoran, Zeiser, & Long, 2003).”
Planning and Realigning a Lesson in Response to Student Contributions
Boyd, M. P. (2012) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/665817 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“These findings align with a half century of continuing research (see, e.g., Cazden, 2001; Dillon, 1984; Mehan, 1979; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Nystrand & Gamoran, 1991; Soter et al., 2008) documenting how traditional teachers tightly control the pacing and scope of classroom talk through recitative…”
ResultMorton, T. (2009) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/iprg.2009.021 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Topic Negotiation in Peer Group Oral Assessment Situations: A Conversation Analytic Approach
Gan, Z., Davison, C., & Hamp‐Lyons, L. (2008) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amn035 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“For example, Sacks (1992a) claims that speakers often start their talk with a prefacing ‘false first’ or ‘transitional first’ topic, which is either exhausted quickly before moving on to other matters or is used to introduce other mentionables.”
BackgroundFrom moves to sequences: expanding the unit of analysis in the study of classroom discourse
Lefstein, A., Snell, J., & Israeli, M. (2015) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3164 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Quality of educational dialogue and association with students’ academic performance
Muhonen, H., Pakarinen, E., Poikkeus, A.-M., Lerkkanen, M.-K., & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.09.007 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
The Singapore experience: Synergy of national policy, classroom practice and design research
Looi, C., So, H., Toh, Y., & Chen, W. (2011) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-010-9102-8 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“As in most traditional classrooms reported in the literature (Mehan 1979; Nassaji and Wells 2000; Wells 1999), the typical discourse interaction in the Singapore classroom is the IRE (initiation-response-evaluation) pattern (Lossman and So 2010).”
BackgroundLehesvuori, S., Viiri, J., Rasku‐Puttonen, H., Moate, J., & Helaakoski, J. (2013) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21100 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Doing Being Playful in the Second Language Classroom
Waring, H. Z. (2012) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/ams047 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Learning an Additional Language Through Dialogic Inquiry
Haneda, M., & Wells, G. A. (2008) · Language and Education · doi:10.2167/le730.0 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“…more likely to occur in curricular activities that were concerned with planning for, carrying out and interpreting the results of inquiries, in which students had considerable responsibility for choosing the specific topic and the method for their investigations (Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
MethodAbd‐Kadir, J., & Hardman, F. (2007) · Language and Education · doi:10.2167/le684.0 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“…thoughtful answers, and by paying attention to what they do with those answers in the follow-up move (i.e. asking pupils to expand on their thinking, justify or clarify their opinions, or make connections to their own experiences [Alexander, 2004; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Nystrand et al., 1997]).”
BackgroundInfluentialRegulation of Teacher Elicitations in the Mathematics Classroom
Nathan, M. J., & Kim, S. (2009) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370000902797304 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“In this way, the teacher could assess the conceptual foundation upon which students’ responses rested, and guide students to engage in more sophisticated forms of reasoning (Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
BackgroundArtificial intelligence in classroom discourse: A systematic review of the past decade
Wang, D., Yang, T., & Chen, G. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102275 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Turn taking and ‘wait time’ in classroom interactions
Ingram, J., & Elliott, V. (2014) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2013.12.002 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Scaffolding in the Writing Center
Thompson, I. K. (2009) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/0741088309342364 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Discourse in Educational Settings
Adger, C. T., & Wright, L. J. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9781118584194.ch40 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
'Interactive Whole Class Teaching' in the National Literacy Strategy
HARDMAN, F., SMITH, F., & WALL, K. (2003) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/03057640302043 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“However, research (e.g. Dillon, 1994; Nystrand et al., 1997; Wells, 1993; Wood, 1992; Nassaji & Wells, 2000) suggests that the ‘initiation-response-feedback’ (IRF) structure can take a variety of forms and functions leading to different levels of pupil participation and engagement, particularly…”
BackgroundThe Routledge International Handbook of English, Language and Literacy Teaching
Beavis, C. (2010) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203863091 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Interrogating video data: systematic quantitative analysis versus micro‐ethnographic analysis
Snell, J. (2011) · International Journal of Social Research Methodology · doi:10.1080/13645579.2011.563624 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Ethnomethodologie und Konversationsanalyse
Breidenstein, G., & Tyagunova, T. (2012) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-18944-4_24 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Finlay, W. M. L., Rohleder, P., Taylor, N., & Culfear, H. (2014) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000128 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“We see common patterns in all of these extracts, each of which is a variant of the extended initiation, reply, evaluation sequences identified in many studies of standard classroom interaction (e.g. Mehan, 1979; Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
BackgroundThe Roles of Third-Turn Repeats in Two L2 Classroom Interactional Contexts
Park, Y. (2013) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amt006 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Mapping Mathematics Classroom Discourse and Its Implications for Models of Teaching
Truxaw, M. P., & DeFranco, T. C. (2008) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.39.5.0489 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Teaching Approaches of Community College Mathematics Faculty
Mesa, V., Celis, S., & Lande, E. (2013) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831213505759 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Using data from science, language arts, and history in elementary and middle schools, Wells and colleagues (Wells & Arauz, 2006; Nassaji & Wells, 2000) developed the Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project (DICEP) coding scheme to look at changes in the characteristics of…”
BackgroundMethodClassroom talk, conceptual change and teacher reflection in bilingual science teaching
Morton, T. (2011) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.07.006 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Tracing learning in interaction: an analysis of shared reading of picture books at kindergarten
Gosen, M. N. (2012) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Handling errors as they arise in whole-class interactions
Ingram, J., Pitt, A., & Baldry, F. (2015) · Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.1080/14794802.2015.1098562 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Its features, dominance and criticism are widely discussed in the educational literature (Mercer, 1995; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Wells, 1993).”
BackgroundProcess quality of classroom discourse: Pupil participation and learning opportunities
Molinari, L., & Mameli, C. (2013) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2013.05.003 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Dialogic Inquiry as Collaborative Action Research
Wells, G. A. (2014) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9780857021021.n6 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“particular issue and a higher proportion of evaluative responses to student contributions ( Nassaji and Wells 2000 ).”
BackgroundTeacher self-talk: Interactional resource for managing instruction and eliciting empathy
Hall, J. K., & Smotrova, T. (2013) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2012.11.017 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Motivational Scaffolding, Politeness, and Writing Center Tutoring
Mackiewicz, J., & Thompson, I. K. (2013) · The Writing center journal · doi:10.7771/2832-9414.1756 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Trappes‐Lomax, H. (2004) · doi:10.1002/9780470757000.ch5 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Kubanyiova, M. (2015) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12244 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…and has been used to encourage students’ explanation, elaboration or extension of their ideas in TLD (Consolo, 2000; Duff, 2000; Hall & Walsh, 2002; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Park, 2014), in other words, to enact the pedagogical goals of classroom context mode, Tamara’s exclusive focus in this turn…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDavin, K., & Troyan, F. (2015) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12124 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Exploring the Concept of Dialogue in the Self-Study of Teaching Practices
Placier, P. L., Pinnegar, S., Hamilton, M. L., et al. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-3528-4_4 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“(Brogan and Brogan, 1995; Dysthe, 1996; Freire, 2000; McCarthey, 1994; Nassaji and Wells, 2000; Padilla, 1992; Vygotsky, 1978) 4. Dialogue as a basis for collaboration, collegiality, and community among professionals (John-Steiner, Weber, and Minnis, 1998; Palmer, 1993) 5. Its role in facilitating relationships among…”
BackgroundBooven, C. D. V. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2015.1023868 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…that teachers adopt more DO questioning practices, others have argued that a balance between authoritative and dialogic sequences is necessary given the diverse goals that teachers establish for their students (Aguiar et al., 2010; Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Scott et al., 2006; Tan & Wong, 2012).”
BackgroundWhat do students do in a F2F CSCL classroom? The optimization of multiple communications modes
Chen, W., Looi, C., & Tan, S. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.013 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“IRE has been observed to account for up to 70% of teacher–student classroom interactions in the classroom (Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Wells, 1999), and is continuously reproduced as part of institutionalized schooling.”
BackgroundTeacher deployment of ‘oh’ in known-answer question sequences
Hosoda, Y. (2015) · Classroom Discourse · doi:10.1080/19463014.2015.1099111 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“…more dialogic patterns of interaction in order to expand or facilitate student contributions that potentially enhance opportunities for learning (e.g. Cazden 2001; Gibbons 2002; Hall 1997; Jacknick 2011; Nassaji and Wells 2000; Nystrand 1997, 2006; Nystrand et al. 2010; Wells and Mejia-Arauz 2009).”
BackgroundDialogical patterns of interaction in pre-school classrooms
Rasku‐Puttonen, H., Lerkkanen, M., Poikkeus, A., et al. (2012) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.004 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Lehesvuori, S., Ramnarain, U. D., & Viiri, J. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9598-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The relationship between patterns of classroom discourse and mathematics learning
Pierson, J. (2008) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · Cited by 49 · see citing works
CLASSROOM INTERACTION STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY ENGLISH TEACHERS AT LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Suryati, N. (2015) · TEFLIN Journal - A publication on the teaching and learning of English · doi:10.15639/teflinjournal.v26i2/247-264 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Scholars (e.g., Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Cullen, 2002) have recommended that teachers manipulate the third component of such exchanges (Feedback turn).”
BackgroundZhu, Y., & Shu, D. (2017) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.03.006 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Teacher Talk Patterns in Science Lessons: Use in Teacher Education
Viiri, J., & Saari, H. (2006) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-006-9028-1 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Drawing on episodes of teacher and whole-class interaction, Nassaji and Wells (2000) showed that the same basic IRF structure can take a variety of forms and be employed by teachers for a wide range of functions, depending on the goal of the activity that the discourse serves to mediate and, in…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialExamining Teacher Talk in an Engineering Design-Based Science Curricular Unit
Aranda, M. L., Lie, R., Guzey, S. S., Makarsu, M., Johnston, A. C., & Moore, T. (2018) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-018-9697-8 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Grinath, A. S., & Southerland, S. A. (2018) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21484 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Furberg, A., & Silseth, K. (2021) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2021.1954521 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“The applied coding scheme is based on an adaptation of selected categories from a more substantive coding scheme developed by Wells and Arauz (2006) and Nassaji & Wells, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodLanguage complexity during read-alouds and kindergartners' vocabulary and symbolic understanding
Lara, M. M., Snow, C. E., Deunk, M., et al. (2016) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2016.02.001 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Teachers' classroom feedback: still trying to get it right
Hargreaves, E. (2011) · Pedagogies An International Journal · doi:10.1080/1554480x.2012.630454 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The answer is only the beginning: Extended discourse in Chinese and U.S. mathematics classrooms.
Bates, M. S., Perry, M., Miller, K. F., et al. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.380 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Fong, C., & Slotta, J. D. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9463-3 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Talk, Tools, and Tensions: Observing biological talk over time
Ash, D. B., Crain, R. L., Brandt, C. B., Loomis, M., Wheaton, M., & Bennett, C. (2007) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690701494118 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Researchers have also organized dialogue into a complex hierarchy of speech units, including episodes, sequences, exchanges, and moves (Halliday & Hasan, 1985 ; Nassaji & Wells, 2000 ; Wells, 1993 ).”
BackgroundInteractional Differentiation in the Mixed‐Ability Group: A Situated View of Two Struggling Readers
Poole, D. (2008) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1598/rrq.43.3.2 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Designing learning with embodied teaching: Perspectives from multimodality
Wei, X., & Yang, X. (2021) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2021.1889580 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Previous research on pedagogic discourse has been mainly concerned with the use of language as a single semiotic mode, looking into the functions of teacher questions or feedback (e.g. Boyd 2015; Nassaji and Wells 2000).”
BackgroundOrder on the court : the interactional organization of basketball practice activities
Evans, B. (2013) · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Patrones de Discurso Observados en el Aula de Matemática de Segundo Ciclo Básico en Chile
Radovic, D., & Preiss, D. (2010) · Psykhe (Santiago) · doi:10.4067/s0718-22282010000200007 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Argumentation in preschool: a common ground for collaborative learning in early childhood
Dovigo, F. (2016) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2016.1239327 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…this pattern is likely to produce assumptive questions – where the teacher assumes they know what the correct answer should be – thus preparing the ground for the fostering of the IRE structure, which would favor the development of convergent rather than divergent thinking (Nassaji and Wells 2000).”
BackgroundTell Us More: Reading Comprehension, Engagement, and Conceptual Press Discourse
McElhone, D. (2012) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2011.561655 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…makes (consciously or unconsciously) about how to conduct classroom discourse around texts have potential consequences for students’ participation (Nassaji & Wells, 2000), the degree to which they engage in thinking about texts (Nystrand, 1997), their understandings about what it means to be a…”
Active classroom participation in a Group Scribbles primary science classroom
Chen, W., & Looi, C. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01082.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lin, A. M. Y. (2007) · Pedagogies An International Journal · doi:10.1080/15544800701343943 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“(Nassaji & Wells, 2000, p. 377) Nassaji and Wells (2000) argued that as the primary knower in the classroom, this triadic dialogue has a built-in mechanism that enables the teacher to fulfil the valuable functions of confirming students’ knowledge to be correct or otherwise, evaluating the quality…”
BackgroundInfluentialYes–No Questions in the Third-Turn Position: Pedagogical Discourse Processes
Lee, Y. (2008) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638530701739215 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“3 This is also called a “triadic dialogue” ( Lemke, 1990 ; Nassaji & Wells, 2000 ).”
Lara, M. M., Deunk, M., Snow, C. E., et al. (2017) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2016.1266226 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“This turn reflects the fact that often in educational interaction the teacher is predominantly the primary knower of the contents (Nassaji and Wells 2000), although this is different in the case of genuine questions about the child’s experiences, thoughts or plans.”
BackgroundMultimodality and footing in peer correction in reading picture books
Johnson, S. J. (2017) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2017.07.004 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nassaji, H.
- Corresponding author
- Nassaji, H
- ORCID
- Nassaji, H
- Venue
- Applied Linguistics
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2000-09-01
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 376-406
- ISSN
- 0142-6001 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-450X
- OpenAlex
- W2018159701
- Cited by
- 545
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 80.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Applied Linguistics (publishedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Spencer Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Discourse Analysis in Language Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Discourse, Communication Strategies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Linguistics and Education Research
- Keywords
- teacher-student relationship, classroom interaction, rhetorical structure, discourse structure
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
