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Cited by 193Animal Vocal Communication and BehaviorAnimal Behavior and ReproductionPrimate Behavior and Ecology

Social Signals and Behaviors of Adult Alligators and Crocodiles

GARRICK, LESLIE D., LANG, JEFFREY W.·1977·American Zoologist
DOI 10.1093/icb/17.1.225
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Abstract

We compare and contrast the signalling systems and social behaviors of Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus aculus, and Crocodylus mloticus. Our qualitative analysis focuses primarily on the behaviors of adults during three phases of reproduction: I. Defense of Territory and Courtship, II. Nesting and Incubation, and III. Hatching and Post Hatching. Signals and signal elements are very similar among the three species. For example, all have vocal, non-vocal acoustic, and visual signals, some transmitted through air or water and others through both media. In addition, each species' repertoire is composed of discrete, graded and complex signals. A few signals are unique to each species. However, their signalling systems differ in the temporal organization of the behaviors, and in the relative frequency in which certain functional groups of signals occuror in which signals occur in a particular sensory mode. Apparently, the signalling systems of C. acutus and C. niloticus are more similar to each other than either is to the signalling system of A. mississippiensis. The signalling systems of the crocodile species appear to be adapted to open water habitats in which visual signals are advantageous and to high density breeding groups and post-copulatory intersexual contact. In contrast, the Alligatorsignalling system appears adapted to a marsh habitat in which vocal signals are likely favored and to low density breeding groups.

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  • Crocodylians appear most vocal during the mating season and at night.

    “Overall, crocodylians appear most vocal during the mating season (Garrick and Lang 1977) and at night (Vliet 1989; Brien et al. 2013; Campbell et al. 2014; Staniewicz et al. 2023).”

    From Roars, Rumbles, and Resonance: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Crocodylian Acoustic Signals (2026) · cites this paper as Garrick and Lang 1977

    The Discussion (page not provided) says American alligator bellowing peaks at the same time as courtship, supporting the mating-season portion of the claim for that vocalization. It does not establish that crocodylians generally are most vocal then; the Comparison of Signals and Signalling Systems section says vocal signals are used more commonly in American alligators than in the two crocodile species. The nighttime portion is attributed to other citations, not this paper. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The contexts for hissing in crocodylians are highly variable and include aggression, defence and courtship.

    “Additionally, the contexts for hissing in crocodylians are highly variable and include aggression, defence and courtship (Garrick and Lang 1977; Garrick et al. 1978; Wang et al. 2007; Dinets 2010).”

    From Roars, Rumbles, and Resonance: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Crocodylian Acoustic Signals (2026) · cites this paper as Garrick and Lang 1977

  • It is unknown whether crocodylians produce hissing via the mouth or the nose.

    “Hissing in particular is intriguing, as it is unknown whether animals produce this signal via the mouth (Garrick and Lang 1977) or the nose (Wang et al. 2007).”

    From Roars, Rumbles, and Resonance: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Crocodylian Acoustic Signals (2026) · cites this paper as Garrick and Lang 1977

    The Comparison of Signals and Signalling Systems section says all three species hiss, but does not say whether hissing is produced through the mouth or nose, or that its route is unknown. Searches for hissing with an open mouth and for nasal exhalation found no passage connecting either route to hissing; the mouth-open display described there accompanies a growl. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Cites

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1 of the 23 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 15

  1. Alvarez del Toro, M. 1974. Los crocodylia de Mexico. Instituto Mexicano de Recursos Naturales Renova- bles, A.C., Mexico, D.F. Blair, W. F. 1968. Amphibians and reptiles. In T. Sebeok (ed.), Animal communication, pp. 289-310, Indiana U. Press, Bloomington.
  2. Cott, H. B. 1968. The status of the Nile crocodile below Murchison Falls 1968. IUCN Bulletin 2(8):62-64.
  3. Crook, J. H. 1970. The socio-ecology of primates. In J. H. Crook (ed.), Social behavior of birds and mam- mals, pp. 103-166. Academic Press, London.
  4. Erickson, B. R. 19726. Alligator ancestors. The Explorer 14(3): 18-21.
  5. Fogarty, M. J. 1974. The ecology of the Everglades alligator. In P. J. Gleason (ed.), Environments of South Florida: Present and past. Mem. Miami Geol. Survey No. 2:367-378.
  6. Garrick, L. D. 19756. Love among the alligators. Anim. Kingd. 78(2):2-8 (April/May, 1975).
  7. Garrick, L. D., J. W. Lang, and H. A. Herzog Jr. 1977. Social signals of adult American alligators. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. (In press)
  8. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Tenn, Knoxville.
  9. Joanen, T. 1970. Nesting ecology of alligators in Louisiana. Proc. SEast. Ass. Game Fish Commnrs., 23rd Ann. Conf., 1969:141-151.
  10. Joanen, T. and L. McNease. 1971. A telemetric study of nesting female alligators on Rockefeller Refuge, Louisiana. Proc. SEast Ass. Game Fish Commnrs, 24th Ann. Conf., 1970:175-193.
  11. Joanen, T. and L. McNease. 1972. Propagation of the American alligator in captivity. Proc. SEast. Ass. Game Fish Commnrs, 25th Ann. Conf., 1971:106- 116.
  12. Joanen, T. and L. McNease. 1973. A telemetric study of adult male alligators on Rockefeller Refuge, Louisiana. Proc. SEast. Ass. Game Fish Commnrs, 26th Ann. Conf., 1972:252-275.
  13. Joanen, T. and L. McNease. 1976. Notes on the reproductive biology and captive propagation of the American alligator. Proc. SEast. Ass. Game Fish Commnrs, 29th Ann. Conf., 1975:407-415.
  14. Langston, W., Jr. 1973. The crocodilian skull in historical perspective. In C. Gans and T. Parsons (eds.), Biology of the Reptilia: Morphology D, Vol. 4., pp. 263-284. Academic Press, New York.
  15. Marler, P. 1968. Visual systems. In T. Sebeok (ed.), Animal communication, pp. 103-126. Indiana U. Press, Bloomington.

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Authors
GARRICK, L. D., & LANG, J. W.
Affiliations
  • Wildlife Conservation Society (US)
  • University of Minnesota (US)
Venue
American Zoologist
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
1977-02
Volume
17
Issue
1
Pages
225-239
ISSN
0003-1569 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1093/icb/17.1.225
OpenAlex
W2094631240
Cited by
193
References
23
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 6
FWCI
5.22
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • American Zoologist (publishedVersion)
  • HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Developmental Biology › Animal Vocal Communication and Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
Keywords
social signaling, alligators, crocodiles, Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus acutus, Crocodylus niloticus, vocalizations, acoustic signals, visual signals, territorial defense, courtship, hatching, reproductive behavior, habitat adaptation, signal complexity, sensory modalities

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