Observational study of behavior: sampling methods

Altmann, Jeanne

doi:10.1163/156853974x00534

Cited by 13,891Primate Behavior and EcologyWildlife Ecology and ConservationAnimal Behavior and Reproduction

Observational study of behavior: sampling methods

Altmann, Jeanne·1974·Behaviour

DOI 10.1163/156853974x00534

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Abstract

Abstract Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.

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Observations were carried out following the focal animal sampling method.
“Observations were carried out following the focal animal 84 sampling method (Altmann, 1974) and lasted 14 hours per sampling period (one hour per day).”
From Pond Use by Captive African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in an Immersive Exhibit Adjacent to Human Bathers (2015) · cites this paper as Altmann, 1974

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Authors: Altmann, J.
Affiliations: 1Allee Laboratory of Animal Behavior, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
Venue: Behaviour
Publisher: Walter de Gruyter GmbH
Published: 1974
Volume: 49
Issue: 3-4
Pages: 227-266
ISSN: 0005-7959 (ISSN-L)
1568-539X
DOI: 10.1163/156853974x00534
OpenAlex: W2054820883
Cited by: 13,891
References: 54
Citations by year: 2026: 351 · 2025: 458 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 466 · 2022: 491 · 2021: 589 · 2020: 543 · 2019: 478 · 2018: 459 · 2017: 465 · 2016: 475 · 2015: 449 · 2014: 485 · 2013: 488 · 2012: 430
FWCI: 58.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Behaviour (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
Keywords: sampling methods, observational studies, social behavior, sampling bias, instantaneous sampling, observer bias, social interaction, animal behavior
MeSH terms: Aggression, Animals, Behavior, Behavior, Animal, Humans, Methods, Sampling Studies, Sex Factors, Social Behavior

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