Cited by 679Paleontology and Stratigraphy of FossilsGeology and Paleoclimatology ResearchEarth Systems and Cosmic Evolution

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The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle: CO2 and O2

Berner, Robert A.·2004·Oxford University Press eBooks

DOI 10.1093/oso/9780195173338.001.0001

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Abstract

The term "carbon cycle" is normally thought to mean those processes that govern the present-day transfer of carbon between life, the atmosphere, and the oceans. This book describes another carbon cycle, one which operates over millions of years and involves the transfer of carbon between rocks and the combination of life, the atmosphere, and the oceans. The weathering of silicate and carbonate rocks and ancient sedimentary organic matter (including recent, large-scale human-induced burning of fossil fuels), the burial of organic matter and carbonate minerals in sediments, and volcanic degassing of carbon dioxide contribute to this cycle. In The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle, Robert Berner shows how carbon cycle models can be used to calculate levels of atmospheric CO2 and O2 over Phanerozoic time, the past 550 million years, and how results compare with independent methods. His analysis has implications for such disparate subjects as the evolution of land plants, the presence of giant ancient insects, the role of tectonics in paleoclimate, and the current debate over global warming and greenhouse gases

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“Consequently, many studies focus on studying carbon cycling on Earth through geological time scales (Berner, 1989, 2004; Hedges, 1992; Hedges & Keil, 1995).”
Background
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“It has been reported that in tectonically active areas, and in places where metamorphism is generated, high amounts of CO2 are released that can migrate and ascend (Berner 2004).”
Background
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“This, according to the DPH, reduced global temperatures, potentially causing short but intense glacial periods (Berner, 2006; Algeo and Scheckler, 2012).”
Background
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Background
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Background
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“Additionally, plants growing in warmer and wetter conditions secrete more organic acids and hence provide more H + and chelates for mineral dissolution (Berner, 2004).”
Background
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“On Earth today, most organic material is oxidized in the oceans, but a small amount sinks to the seafloor, where it is eventually thermolyzed in Earth’s interior following subduction (Berner, 2004).”
Background
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“Superimposed to the direct climate effect of latitudinal shift of continental masses, the CO2 variations associated to tectonics were shown to deeply impact climate evolution (Berner, 2004) and its regulation (Walker et al., 1981).”
Background
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“…isotopic fractionation between organic matter and carbonate (cf. Algeo and Ingall 2007), and a large variety of parameters characterizing the weathering of silicate and carbonate rocks and the degassing of CO2 from volcanism and metamorphism (see Berner 2004a for further details of GEOCARBSULF).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
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BackgroundMethodInfluential
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Background
8. Petroleum: from formation to microbiology
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“Natural methane hydrates make up a large carbon reservoir that is located between the short-term carbon cycle in the biosphere, ocean, and atmosphere, and carbon buried in the rock cycle over millions of years (Berner, 2004).”
Background
LATE PENNSYLVANIAN (VIRGILIAN) TO EARLY PERMIAN (LEONARDIAN) CONODONT BIOSTRATIGRAPHYOF THE “WOLFCAMP SHALE,” NORTHERN MIDLAND BASIN, TEXAS
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“…dominant factor affecting atmospheric levels of both CO2 and O2 over the past 550 million years was the rise of vascular land plants, namely trees (Berner 2003, 2004), regarded as the primary cause of the steep increase in atmospheric O2 between about 400 and 300 million years ago (Berner 2006;…”
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“The stable concentration of CO2 is the result of a balance between the tectonic input rate of CO2 and its removal by silicate weathering (Berner, 2004), and it is broadly understood that changes in CO2 concentration on timescales of 1–100 Myr over the Phanerozoic Eon (the last 541 × 10(6) years) have been driven by bo…”
BackgroundInfluential
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Background
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Background
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Background
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“Likewise, during the oxidation reactions of organic matter in the soil or shallow groundwater, CO2 is released due to the participation of microorganisms (Han and Plummer 2016) or even when there is a deep contribution of CO2 by respiration rates at greater depths or due to geological causes (Berner 2004; Macpherson e…”
Background
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Background
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Huysmans, T., Meysman, F. J. R., & van de Velde, S. (2025) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-22-5557-2025 · Cited by 7
The Equilibrium Conundrum
Grainger, T. N., Stark, K., Song, C., Barbour, M. A., & Germain, R. M. (2025) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.70232 · Cited by 6
“(Berner 2004) We are not the first to cast a critical eye on our reliance on equilibrium; others have discussed the role of equilibrium in ecology (Connell and Sousa 1983; DeAngelis and Waterhouse 1987; Wu and Loucks 1995; Cuddington 2001), advocated for a departure from equilibrium thinking…”
Increased Continental Exposure as a Driver of Carbon Drawdown and Initiation of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age
Zhang, Y., Yuan, S., Mills, B. J. W., Merdith, A., Hu, Y., & Zhu, M. (2025) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2025gl119356 · Cited by 5
“…climate cooling trend coincided with a long‐term decrease in atmospheric CO 2 levels between ∼ 400 and ∼ 340 Ma (Foster et al., 2017), which is generally regarded as the primary driver of global cooling at this time (Berner, 2004; Goddéris et al., 2017; Griffis et al., 2019; Lenton et al., 2018).”
All aboard! Earth system investigations with the CH2O-CHOO TRAIN v1.0
Kukla, T., Ibarra, D. E., Lau, K., & Rugenstein, J. K. C. (2023) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-16-5515-2023 · Cited by 8
Insights from a dynamical system approach into the history of atmospheric oxygenation
Fakhraee, M., & Planavsky, N. J. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-51042-0 · Cited by 7
“The feedbacks we are exploring have been extensively discussed and there is general consensus that these factors play a critical role in modulating Earth ’ s atmospheric oxygen levels 4,10,24 – 26 .”
Background
Physiological and morphological scaling enables gigantism in pelagic protists
Burke, J. E., Elder, L. E., Maas, A. E., Gaskell, D. E., Clark, E., Hsiang, A. Y., Foster, G. L., & Hull, P. M. (2025) · Limnology and Oceanography · doi:10.1002/lno.12770 · Cited by 5
“…carbon exported to the deep sea in proportions ranging from 3.8% to as much as half (Schiebel and Hemleben 2000; Knect et al. 2023), with inorganic calcite being the primary long-term mechanism removing carbon from the ocean – atmosphere system (e.g., Berner 2004; Ridgwell and Zeebe 2005).”
Influential
CO2 – Baustein des Lebens und Treiber der globalen Erwärmung
Riener, K., & Kühn, F. E. (2014) · Chemie in unserer Zeit · doi:10.1002/ciuz.201400651 · Cited by 5
Mineralogical and Elemental Trends in Regolith on Historically Managed Sites in the southeastern United States Piedmont
Schroeder, P. A., Austin, J. C., Thompson, A., et al. (2022) · Clays and Clay Minerals · doi:10.1007/s42860-022-00202-8 · Cited by 5
“Regolith variability can also influence the recording and preservation of paleoclimate signals in paleosols and exogenic carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen cycling; all of which are key to understanding geologic systems over millennial to million-year timescales (Berner, 2004; Cecil, 2003).”
Background
Continental paleoclimate estimates from the late Mississippian Redwall karst event: northern and north-central Arizona (USA)
Kenny, R. (2010) · Carbonates and Evaporites · doi:10.1007/s13146-010-0033-2 · Cited by 5
Natural water input deposits little atmospheric carbon into groundwater in a desert
Fa, K., Xie, E., Zhao, X. Y., & Wang, C. (2020) · CATENA · doi:10.1016/j.catena.2020.105097 · Cited by 5
The Evolution of the Sedimentary Sulfur Cycle
Rickard, D. T. (2012) · Developments in sedimentology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-52989-3.00017-9 · Cited by 6
Why Were There Dinosaurs? Why Are There Birds?
Ward, P. D., & Berner, R. A. (2011) · doi:10.1002/9781119990475.ch2 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Tracing Organic Carbon Sources With Ramped Pyrolysis/Oxidation
Wang, J., Zhang, F., Cui, X., Cheng, P., Pan, P., Wu, G., Qu, Y., Huang, H., & Jin, Z. (2025) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2025gl115321 · Cited by 4
“Organic carbon (OC) is a fundamental component of the global carbon cycle, playing a significant role across various timescales (Berner, 2004; Hilton & West, 2020).”
An abrupt drop in weathering flux amplified the Artinskian Warming Event during the Late Paleozoic Ice Age
Sun, S., Chen, A., Ogg, J. G., et al. (2026) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-026-03288-3 · Cited by 4
Were early Archean carbonate factories major carbon sinks on the juvenile Earth?
Xiang, W., Duda, J., Pack, A., van Zuilen, M. A., & Reitner, J. (2024) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-21-5653-2024 · Cited by 5
Battle of the gases in the race for survival: Atmospheric CO2 versus O2
Bailey, D. M., & Poole, D. C. (2022) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep090627 · Cited by 4
“Experimental Physiology© 2022 The Physiological Society. attributable to the increased burial and subsequent weathering of organic matter (Berner, 2004).”
Background
Do Southeast Asia's paleo‐Antarctic trees cool the planet?
Wilf, P., & Kooyman, R. M. (2023) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.19067 · Cited by 4
The evolution of respiratory systems in Theropoda and Paracrocodylomorpha, the end-Triassic extinction, and the role of Late Triassic atmospheric O2 and CO2
Hudgins, M., Uhen, M. D., & Hinnov, L. A. (2020) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109638 · Cited by 4
Chapter 17 The Geologic History of C4 Plants
Osborne, C. P. (2010) · Advances in photosynthesis and respiration · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9407-0_17 · Cited by 4
La historia Cenozoica del fenómeno de El Niño
Martínez, J. I. (2009) · Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales · Cited by 4

Authors: Berner, R. A.
Corresponding author: Berner, Robert A.
Venue: Oxford University Press eBooks
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Published: 2004-09-02
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780195173338.001.0001
OpenAlex: W2798800744
Cited by: 679
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 31
FWCI: 12.46
Type: book
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Geology and Paleoclimatology Research
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Earth Systems and Cosmic Evolution
Keywords: atmospheric CO2, atmospheric oxygen, silicate weathering, carbonate weathering, organic matter burial, volcanic degassing, carbon cycle models, paleoclimate, land plant evolution, giant insects, tectonics, global warming, greenhouse gases, fossil fuel combustion

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The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle: CO2 and O2

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