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The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle: CO2 and O2
Abstract
The term "carbon cycle" is normally thought to mean those processes that govern the present-day transfer of carbon between life, the atmosphere, and the oceans. This book describes another carbon cycle, one which operates over millions of years and involves the transfer of carbon between rocks and the combination of life, the atmosphere, and the oceans. The weathering of silicate and carbonate rocks and ancient sedimentary organic matter (including recent, large-scale human-induced burning of fossil fuels), the burial of organic matter and carbonate minerals in sediments, and volcanic degassing of carbon dioxide contribute to this cycle. In The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle, Robert Berner shows how carbon cycle models can be used to calculate levels of atmospheric CO2 and O2 over Phanerozoic time, the past 550 million years, and how results compare with independent methods. His analysis has implications for such disparate subjects as the evolution of land plants, the presence of giant ancient insects, the role of tectonics in paleoclimate, and the current debate over global warming and greenhouse gases
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“Such models are corroborated through geochemical and isotopic paleoclimate proxies over geologic time (Berner, 2004; Mackenzie and Lerman, 2006; Kump et al., 2010; Langmuir and Broecker, 2012).”
From Exoplanet Biosignatures: A Framework for Their Assessment (2018) · cites this paper as Berner, 2004
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Some illustrations of large tectonically driven climate changes in Earth history
Zhang, Z., & Ramstein, G. (2021) · EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts · doi:10.5194/egusphere-egu21-15737 · Cited by 4
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Wu, J., Guo, L., Xiong, S., et al. (2025) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2025gl118302 · Cited by 3
Liu, F., Huang, E., Du, J., Ma, W., Liu, Z., Lourens, L. J., & Tian, J. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adx6682 · Cited by 3
Integrating ecology and systematics in climate change research
Hodkinson, T. R. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511974540.002 · Cited by 3
From black mud to earth system science: A scientific autobiography
Berner, R. A. (2013) · American Journal of Science · doi:10.2475/01.2013.01 · Cited by 3
“In 2004, I published a book (Berner, 2004) entitled “The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle; CO2 and O2.””
BackgroundSelf-citationGao, Z., Zhang, H., Shi, M., et al. (2020) · Environmental Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12665-020-09183-0 · Cited by 3
“1991; Robert 2004); approximately 77 × 1015 gCyr−1a−1 CO2 is released into the atmosphere through soil respiration (Raich and Potter 1995).”
BackgroundThe Physics and Origin of Plate Tectonics From Grains to Global Scales
Mulyukova, E., & Bercovici, D. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85733-8.00015-9 · Cited by 4
Oxygen bounty for Earth-like exoplanets: spectra of Earth through the Phanerozoic
Payne, R. C., & Kaltenegger, L. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad147 · Cited by 3
The Nature of the Spark Is a Pivotal Element in the Design of a Miller–Urey Experiment
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Molecular biogeochemistry of modern and ancient marine microbes
Waldbauer, J. (2010) · Open Access Server of the Woods Hole Scientific Community (Woods Hole Scientific Community) · doi:10.1575/1912/3238 · Cited by 3
A different look at biogeochemistry
Berner, R. A. (2005) · American Journal of Science · doi:10.2475/ajs.305.6-8.872 · Cited by 3
“The new plants, especially trees, accelerated the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and the addition of O2 to it, resulting in changes in the levels of both gases (Berner, 2004; Beerling and Berner, 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGillen, P. (2016) · Environmental Humanities · doi:10.1215/22011919-3664324 · Cited by 3
Young, S. A., Cadieux, S. B., Peng, Y., White, J. R., & Pratt, L. M. (2018) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2018.08.013 · Cited by 3
“The biogeochemical C and S cycles are intrinsically linked through MSR, which couples the oxidation of organic matter to the production of sulfide (e.g., Berner, 2004 and references therein).”
BackgroundTheiling, B., & Coleman, M. L. (2019) · Marine Geology · doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2019.04.001 · Cited by 3
History and Development of the Anthropocene as a Stratigraphic Concept
Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C. N., Williams, M., & Summerhayes, C. P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108621359.001 · Cited by 4
Climate Change and the Anthropocene
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The Technosphere and Its Physical Stratigraphic Record
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Climate model sensitivity to changes in Miocene paleotopography
(2010) · Australian Journal of Earth Sciences · doi:10.1080/08120091003619258 · Cited by 3
“planktonic foraminifera, Pagani et al. (1999) derived a surprisingly low CO2 value of 180–290 ppmv (parts per Figure 1 Atmospheric CO2 and ocean bottom temperatures for the period 25–10 Ma (Oligocene–Miocene). Paleotemperatures are based on (18)O and Ca/Mg ratios; paleo CO2 levels are based on stomata, carbon isotopes…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVolcanically driven Hg–C–S cycling and climate change across the Early Permian Artinskian warming
Wu, A., Cao, J., Zhang, J., Hu, W., Wang, Y., Zhang, C., & He, W. (2025) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02843-8 · Cited by 3
“Additionally, glacial evolution is likely driven by multiple interacting factors, including tectonic activity and tectonic belt drift 34,79 , orogeny 16 , silicate and ophiolite weathering 12,15 , and terrestrial carbon cycles (e.g., vegetation-inducedcarbonsequestration) 3,14 .”
InfluentialProgress and prospects in paleoclimate modeling
Zhang, Z., Hu, Y. M., Jiang, D., Tian, J., Zhou, T., Liu, J., & Liu, X. H. (2026) · Science China Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11430-025-1919-6 · Cited by 2
“In turn, climate change reshapes Earth ’ s surface through weathering, erosion, and sedimentation processes (Wolf et al., 2022), influences plate motions (Sobolev and Brown, 2019), and regulates the carbon cycle (Berner, 2004).”
Early Atmosphere-Ocean-Biosphere Systems
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Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C. N., Williams, M., & Summerhayes, C. P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108621359.007 · Cited by 2
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“Atmospheric CO2 and H2O reacts with rocks and is converted into aqueous bicarbonate that is transferred to the oceans via riverine discharge and eventually deposited on the seafloor as biogenic carbonates (Walker et al., 1981; Berner, 2004).”
BackgroundWater-CO2-rock interaction during carbon sequestration
Oelkers, É. H., & Gíslason, S. R. (2012) · doi:10.1180/emu-notes.10.9 · Cited by 2
Snelling, A. M., Leng, M. J., Zalasiewicz, J., et al. (2010) · Proceedings of the Geologists Association · doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2010.10.004 · Cited by 2
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Morris, R., & Canil, D. (2024) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2024gc011485 · Cited by 2
“Earth's long‐term ( > 1 Myr) climate variability is controlled by the regulation of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) levels, of which volcanic degassing is a primary input (Berner, 2004).”
BackgroundThe Geologic History of C 4 Plants
Osborne, C. P. (2011) · Cited by 2
González-Lanchas, A., Rickaby, R. E. M., Sierro, F. J., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2899121/v2 · Cited by 2
Grimm, C. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/e65396c0zbad9z4f15z857bza43ea4ee8a6e · Cited by 1
Historical contingency and the development of planetary ecosystems
Wilkinson, D. M. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568469.003.0010 · Cited by 1
Bambach, R. K. (2008) · The Paleontological Society Papers · doi:10.1017/s1089332600001583 · Cited by 2
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Towards a Global Earth Regulation
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Section 8. The Interaction of Iron with Other Biogeochemical Cycles
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Section 9. The History of the Iron Biogeochemical Cycle
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“…the hydrogeochemical information of an aquifer, helps to determine the geochemical evolution, incorporation of CO 2 from the recharging area, dissolution processes (Clark and Fitz 1997), or the occurrence of a deep contribution of CO 2 by a geological source (Berner 2004; Macpherson et al. 2008).”
Mazumdar, A., Peketi, A., Khadke, N., Mishra, S., Sivan, K., Ghosh, A., Pillutla, S. P. K., Sadique, M., & Zatale, A. (2024) · Journal of Earth System Science · doi:10.1007/s12040-024-02330-2 · Cited by 3
“Only a small fraction of the organic matter is exported to the sea C oor (Holland 1978; Hedges and Keil 1995; Berner 2004; Arndt et al. 2013) since the majority of the organic matter is remineralized to CO 2 during its trajectory (Burdige 2007).”
A possible long-term CO2 sink through submarine weathering of detrital silicates
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Barton, M. E. (2007) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) · Cited by 1
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“Given the increasing dominance of higher plants in Phanerozoic time, a comprehensive model of the long-term carbon cycle should take into account the influences of the global biotic productivity as a function of pCO2, temperature, and planetary albedo, along with the rate of oxidation of reduced organic carbon, sulfid…”
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Cantrill, D. J., & Poole, I. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139024990.002
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Atmospheres
Glikson, A. Y. (2013) · SpringerBriefs in earth sciences · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7332-5_2
Heterogeneous reservoirs in the marine carbon cycle
Follett, C. L. (2014) · Open Access Server of the Woods Hole Scientific Community (Woods Hole Scientific Community) · doi:10.1575/1912/6751 · Cited by 1
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Bargen, J. V. (2010) · The Knowledge Bank (The Ohio State University)
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Oh, N. (2014) · Korean Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology · doi:10.5532/kjafm.2014.16.3.169
Lacis, A. A., & Knob, P. C. (2010)
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Pusz, A. E. (2007) · Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) · doi:10.7282/t36d5tcv
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Wilkinson, D. M. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568469.003.0006
Nutrient cycling as an emergent property
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Wilkinson, D. M. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568469.003.0011
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Wilkinson, D. M. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568469.003.0004
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“A view is that the Earth’s surface is cooled by liquid water since the Earth’s temperature needs to be stabilized by a negative feedback in the formation of plate tectonics (Bercovici et al., 2015; Walker et al., 1981; Berner, 2004).”
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(2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108621359.008
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Stratigraphic Signatures of the Anthropocene
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Metadata
- Authors
- Berner, R. A.
- Corresponding author
- Berner, Robert A.
- Venue
- Oxford University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2004-09-02
- OpenAlex
- W2798800744
- Cited by
- 679
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 12.46
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Geology and Paleoclimatology Research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Earth Systems and Cosmic Evolution
- Keywords
- atmospheric CO2, atmospheric oxygen, silicate weathering, carbonate weathering, organic matter burial, volcanic degassing, carbon cycle models, paleoclimate, land plant evolution, giant insects, tectonics, global warming, greenhouse gases, fossil fuel combustion
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