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Recall of Psychiatric History in Cross-sectional Surveys: Implications for Epidemiologic Research
Abstract
Data from a variety of sources suggest the possibility of significant errors in lifetime recall of psychiatric illness. Remote episodes of illness may often be forgotten, especially among patients with milder or less recurrent illness or those who received no treatment. These errors in recall may lead to significant underestimation of true lifetime prevalence and may produce the appearance of large temporal increases in risk in the absence of any true change. When assessing lifetime history, cross-sectional surveys may differentially underestimate prevalence in the elderly and in those with less severe or recurrent illness. While lifetime risk of depression and other psychiatric disorders may not be increasing as rapidly as suggested by cross-sectional surveys, the overall impact of such disorders over the life span may be significantly greater than previous community surveys have indicated.
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“Retrospective recall is associated with decreased reliability as a result of memory deterioration, hindsight and recall bias, and a tendency to overemphasize past events, which provide an explanation for current problems (Hardt and Rutter, 2004) or underestimate past morbidity (Simon and VonKorff, 1995).”
From Factors associated with recovery from anorexia nervosa (2013) · cites this paper as Simon and VonKorff, 1995
In the citing paper
“Retrospective recall entails sources of invalidity that limit inference about the developmental origins of adults with disorder(15-17).”
From Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study (2015) · cites this paper as [17]
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Scott, K. M., de Jonge, P., Alonso, J., Viana, M. C., Liu, Z., O’Neill, S. M., Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Bruffaerts, R., Caldas‐de‐Almeida, J. M., Stein, D. J., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.08.012 · Cited by 92
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The female Tourette patient: Sex differences in Tourette Disorder
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“remembering the onset of symptoms if the onset was months or years ago is definitely a source of erroneous reports (17).”
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Kessler, R. C., Cox, B. J., Green, J. G., Ormel, J., McLaughlin, K. A., Merikangas, K. R., Petukhova, M. V., Pine, D. S., Russo, L., Swendsen, J. D., et al. (2011) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20760 · Cited by 82
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“On the basis of the evidence that retrospective age-of-onset reports are often biased (Simon and VonKorff, 1995), a special question sequence was used to improve the accuracy of reporting, which has also been used in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R), details of which have been…”
MethodThe Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Psychiatric Disorders in The Community: Is There A Link?
Talley, N. J., Howell, S. C., & Poulton, R. (2001) · The American Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.03741.x · Cited by 79
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“As retrospective AOO reports may be inaccurate (Simon & VonKorff, 1995), we used a special question sequence that experimental research has shown to yield more plausible responses than standard ageof-onset questions (Knauper et al. 1999).”
MethodThe General Factor of Psychopathology (p): Choosing Among Competing Models and Interpreting p
Caspi, A., Houts, R., Fisher, H. L., Danese, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221147872 · Cited by 88
“And yet it is widely recognized that the manner in which most researchers collect life-time reports of mental disorders yields unreliable retrospective data (Simon & VonKorff, 1995).”
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“Using this prospective approach, cases are not under-counted due to failure to recall criterion symptoms from years past, as occurs in retrospective surveys (Simon & VonKorff, 1995).”
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BackgroundMental disorders and risk of suicide attempt in prisoners
Favril, L., Indig, D., Gear, C., & Wilhelm, K. (2020) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01851-7 · Cited by 69
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Schaefer, J. D., Hamdi, N. R., Malone, S. M., Vrieze, S., Wilson, S., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2013180118 · Cited by 64
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“Retrospective age of onset (AOO) reports were obtained in the WMH-CIDI using a question series designed to avoid the implausible response patterns obtained in using the standard CIDI AOO question (Simon and VonKorff, 1995).”
MethodHealth-Related Lost Productive Time (LPT): Recall Interval and Bias in LPT Estimates
Stewart, W. F., Ricci, J. A., & Leotta, C. (2004) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000126685.59954.55 · Cited by 62
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“16 These percentages could be underestimates due to recall failure, 17 as these studies were cross-sectional or had 2 assessment waves and, thus, relied mainly on retrospective data.”
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Peiper, N. C., Ridenour, T. A., Hochwalt, B. E., & Coyne-Beasley, T. D. (2016) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2016.03.005 · Cited by 56
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“This is thought to be of considerable importance in the long-term recall of psychopatholo gy (recently reviewed by Simon and VonKorff, 1995 ).”
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Poulton, R., & Menzies, R. G. (2002) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00052-3 · Cited by 52
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“Because some of the mild, short and non-recurrent episodes of disorders might be under-reported in the retrospective study (Simon and VonKorff, 1995) and there is a tendency for adults to underreport their childhood ADHD symptoms (Barkley et al.”
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“report of past history may be unreliable [27].”
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Arnett, J. J., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Donnellan, M. B. (2013) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696812466848 · Cited by 51
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“Swendsen et al. (2010) suggest that pre-existing mental disorders, including behavioral, mood, anxiety and other substance use disorders, can predict the later onset of substance use problems, but other studies find associations in the reverse direction (Breslau et al.”
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“Although the possibility of a gender-specific recall bias cannot be excluded, previous research in depression has shown that this may not be an adequate explanation [28,34].”
BackgroundJuvenile Mental Health Histories of Adults With Anxiety Disorders
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“Lifetime estimates were excluded as they are most likely influenced by recall bias (Kruijshaar et al., 2005; Moffitt et al., 2010; Simon and Vonkorff, 1995; Susser and Shrout, 2010).”
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“Finally, because individuals tend to be less accurate at remembering when they first experienced symptoms than whether they ever experienced symptoms (Prusoff, Merikangas, & Weissman, 1988; Simon & VonKorff, 1995), it is important to measure age-atonset with prospective, longitudinal data.”
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“It also assesses the age at onset of each disorder, through a series of questions designed to improve accuracy of retrospective reports and avoid implausible response patterns [31, 32].”
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“Previous studies have shown that the validity of the assessment of service use could be biased dependent upon recall time periods 28 or frequency of service use, all leading to a modest underestimation of more recent service use.”
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“The CIDI retrospectively assessed the age of onset for the disorders; however, in view of the existing evidence that retrospective age-of-onset reports are often biased [30], a special question sequence (previously used in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication) was introduced to improve the accuracy of reporting.”
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“For example, issues with recall inaccuracy often occur when some time has elapsed between a specific event of interest and participation in the survey [21,22].”
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“…provided raw data (the total number of participants and the number of individuals with mental health problems), studies with less than 30 individuals, studies that solely relied on lifetime diagnoses of mental health problems, as the increased susceptibility to recall bias (Simon & VonKorff, 1995).”
Birrell, L., Newton, N. C., Teesson, M., Tonks, Z., & Slade, T. N. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.02.008 · Cited by 35
“Age of onset responses in cross-sectional surveys like the NSMHWB rely on retrospective recall and are subject to retrospective recall bias (Simon & VonKorff, 1995).”
BackgroundDepressive and anxiety disorders: Associated with losing or gaining weight over 2 years?
de Wit, L. M., van Straten, A., Lamers, F., Cuijpers, P. J., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.02.025 · Cited by 38
“Furthermore respondents with current and remitted depressive and/or anxiety disorders in this sample were more often female, older, lower educated, socially inactive and were more likely to be a smoker (Table 1).”
BackgroundSimon, G. E., Stewart, C. C., Beck, A. L., Ahmedani, B. K., Coleman, K. J., Whitebird, R. R., Lynch, F. L., Owen‐Smith, A. A., Waitzfelder, B. E., Soumerai, S. B., et al. (2014) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300371 · Cited by 34
“depressive episodes are frequently not recalled (6), community residents with successfully treated depression could be misclassified as having no history of mental health diagnosis.”
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSingle mothers and the use of professionals for mental health care reasons
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The Age of Onset of Anxiety Disorders
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Investigating the relationship between age of onset of depressive disorder and cognitive function
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“Bias in self‐report may have arisen through a “telescoping” phenomenon, where memories of depressive episodes that happened long ago are seen as having occured recently(74) Moreover, older participants tend to forget psychiatric disorder episodes that did not affect them severely, especially the ones that happened man…”
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Lupattelli, A., Twigg, M. J., Zagorodnikova, K., Moretti, M. E., Drozd, M., Panchaud, A., Rieutord, A., Juraški, R. G., Odalović, M., Kennedy, D. S., et al. (2018) · Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.2147/clep.s156210 · Cited by 31
Lifetime risk and age-of-onset of mental disorders in the Belgian general population
Bonnewyn, A., Bruffaerts, R., Vilagut, G., Almansa, J., & Demyttenaere, K. (2007) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0191-2 · Cited by 29
“Second, we assumed that, in the calculations of projected lifetime risks and cohort effects, the ages of onset were valid and reliable estimates, whereas there are previous studies indicating that reported ages of onset could be biased by respondents’ age at the moment of the interview [18, 38].”
Dell’Osso, B. M., Oldani, L., Camuri, G., Benatti, B., Grancini, B. M., Arici, C., Cremaschi, L., Palazzo, C., Spagnolin, G., Dobrea, C., et al. (2016) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12380 · Cited by 29
“In this regard, many authors believe that the most reliable way to collect information related to the latency to first pharmacological treatment is to restrict investigation to first-episode patients.(28) Such a method, in fact, would avoid the occurrence of possible retrospective recall bias – the clinician who presc…”
BackgroundAssociations between DSM-IV mental disorders and subsequent non-fatal, self-reported stroke
Swain, N., Lim, C. C. W., Levinson, D., Fiestas, F., de Girolamo, G., Moskalewicz, J., Lépine, J., Posada‐Villa, J., Haro, J. M., Medina‐Mora, M. E., et al. (2015) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.05.008 · Cited by 27
Antidepressants Are Not Overprescribed for Mild Depression
Simon, G. E., Rossom, R. C., Beck, A. L., Waitzfelder, B. E., Coleman, K. J., Stewart, C. C., Operskalski, B. H., Penfold, R. B., & Shortreed, S. M. (2015) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.14m09162 · Cited by 27
“As discussed above, longitudinal studies suggest that past episodes of depression are often not recalled (15, 18).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPoverty and adolescent depressive symptoms.
Butler, A. C. (2014) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/h0098735 · Cited by 26
Scott, K. M., Alonso, J., de Jonge, P., Viana, M. C., Liu, Z., O’Neill, S. M., Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Bruffaerts, R., Caldas‐de‐Almeida, J. M., Stein, D. J., et al. (2013) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.04.007 · Cited by 26
Scott, K. M., de Vries, Y. A., Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Al-Hamzawi, A., Alonso, J., Bromet, E. J., Bunting, B., Caldas‐de‐Almeida, J. M., Cía, A. H., Florescu, S., et al. (2020) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796020000517 · Cited by 25
“This is known to underestimate lifetime mental disorders (Moffitt et al ., 2010; Takayanagi et al ., 2014) and to lead to inaccuracies in the age of onset timing (Simon and Von Korff, 1995).”
Butterworth, P., Anstey, K. J., Jorm, A. F., et al. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2003.10.015 · Cited by 25
Barriers to Accessible Health Care for Medicaid Eligible People With Disabilities
McDoom, M. M., Koppelman, E. A., & Drainoni, M. (2012) · Journal of Disability Policy Studies · doi:10.1177/1044207312469829 · Cited by 25
“For example, the recall bias of use of services or barriers encountered may be less vivid for a patient with psychiatric or cognitive disorders (Simon & VonKorff, 1995).”
BackgroundMeasuring costs of guideline-driven mental health care: the Texas Medication Algorithm Project
Kashner, T. M., Rush, A. J., & Altshuler, K. Z. (1999) · The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-176x(199909)2:3 · Cited by 25
Bruffaerts, R., Harris, M., Kazdin, A. E., Vigo, D., Sampson, N. A., Chiu, W. T., Al-Hamzawi, A., Alonso, J., Altwaijri, Y. A., Andrade, L. H., et al. (2022) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-022-02249-3 · Cited by 24
“Prior researches have suggested that recall of symptoms could be biased by respondents’ age at the moment of the interview [37].”
BackgroundCoêlho, B. M., Santana, G. L., Viana, M. C., Wang, Y., & Andrade, L. H. (2021) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1448 · Cited by 24
Husky, M. M., Sadikova, E., Lee, S., Alonso, J., Auerbach, R. P., Bantjes, J. R., Bruffaerts, R., Cuijpers, P. J., Ebert, D. D., Garcia, R. G., et al. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721004980 · Cited by 25
Comorbid Psychiatric Disorders in Subjects with Panic Attacks
Katerndahl, D. A., & Realini, J. P. (1997) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199711000-00003 · Cited by 23
REPRINT OF: Physical and Mental Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence for Men and Women
Coker, A. L., Davis, K. E., Arias, I., Desai, S., Sanderson, M., Brandt, H. M., & Smith, P. H. (2021) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2021.10.001 · Cited by 22
Are women with functional limitations at high risk of underutilization of mammography screening?
Ahmed, N. U., Smith, G. L., Haber, G., & Belcon, M. C. (2009) · Women's health issues · doi:10.1016/j.whi.2008.09.001 · Cited by 20
The phenomenology of the first panic attack in clinical and community-based samples
Pané‐Farré, C. A., Stender, J. P., Fenske, K., Deckert, J., Reif, A., John, U., Schmidt, C. O., Schulz, A., Lang�, T., Alpers, G. W., et al. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.05.009 · Cited by 21
Mental health among rural Latino immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic
Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Plancarte, V., Perez‐Lua, F., Payán, D. D., & Young, M. D. T. (2022) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100177 · Cited by 21
“, life history calendars) improve recall of mental disorder experiences, which are typically significantly underestimated (Axinn et al., 2020; Simon and VonKorff, 1995).”
BackgroundResponse to Past Depression Treatments Is Not Accurately Recalled
Simon, G. E., Rutter, C. M., Stewart, C. C., Pabiniak, C. J., & Wehnes, L. (2012) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.12m07883 · Cited by 18
“Recall errors are more often due to under-reporting of past depression, and underreporting is more likely among those not depressed at the time of recall (15, 16).”
Self-citationTsuchiya, M., Kawakami, N., Ono, Y., Nakane, Y., Nakamura, Y., Tachimori, H., Iwata, N., Uda, H., Nakane, H., Watanabe, M., et al. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20508 · Cited by 19
“Retrospective age-of-onset (AOO) reports were obtained in the CIDI using a series of questions designed to avoid the implausible response patterns obtained in previous structured diagnostic interviews.([29]) A detailed description of this approach is presented elsewhere.”
MethodNew Directions in the Treatment of Somatization
Woolfolk, R. L., Allen, L. A., & Tiu, J. (2007) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2007.07.001 · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Simon, G. E., & VonKorff, M.
- Affiliations
- Group Health Cooperative (US)
- Corresponding author
- Simon, Gregory E.
- ORCID
- Simon, Gregory E.
- Venue
- Epidemiologic Reviews
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1995
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 221-227
- ISSN
- 0193-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1478-6729
- OpenAlex
- W1531843813
- Cited by
- 269
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 11.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Epidemiologic Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (51338)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Keywords
- lifetime prevalence, recall bias, cross-sectional survey, depression, mental illness, underestimation of prevalence, older adults, disease severity
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Medical History Taking, Mental Recall, Reproducibility of Results, Bias
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