Injury to skeletal muscle fibers during contractions: conditions of occurrence and prevention
Abstract
Contraction-induced injury results in the degeneration and regeneration of muscle fibers. Of the three types of contractions--shortening (concentric), isometric, and lengthening (eccentric)--injury is most likely to occur and the severity of the injury is greatest during lengthening contractions. The magnitude of the injury to muscle fibers may be assessed by direct measures of cellular and ultrastructural damage; by indirect measures of changes in enzyme efflux, calcium influx, ratio of oxidized to reduced glutathione, and force development; and, in human beings, by reports of muscle soreness. The sequence of events includes an initial injury that is primarily mechanical and a secondary metabolic, or biochemical, injury that peaks 1 to 3 days after the injurious contractions. The recovery from contraction-induced injury is usually complete within 30 days. Repeated exposures to protocols of lengthening contractions result in "trained" muscles that are not injured by the protocol that previously caused injury.
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If repeated multiple times, eccentric contractions are a useful tool to induce a physiologically-relevant injury to skeletal muscle, resulting in damage to the contractile apparatus and loss of function.
“If repeated multiple times, eccentric contractions are a useful tool to induce a physiologically-relevant injury to skeletal muscle, resulting in damage to the contractile apparatus and loss of function (2, 3).”
From Phytoecdysteroids Accelerate Recovery of Skeletal Muscle Function Following in vivo Eccentric Contraction-Induced Injury in Adult and Old Mice (2021) · cites this paper as [3]
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“Most of these effects are in the direction of Faulkner’s bimodal reduction, with both acute and delayed decreases in neuromuscular performance (Faulkner et al. 1993).”
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“Numerous studies report that muscle injuries after SSC exercise are associated with increased CK activity around the second day after this kind of exercise (5,12,20).”
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“Arguably, strength loss is the most important functional consequence and the most reliable indicator of injury (6, 27).”
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“With regular training, protein turnover (23) and resistance exercise-induced muscle damage are attenuated (5), which could be why highly trained lifters have not been found to respond to HMB supplementation to the same extent as previously untrained lifters.”
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“Arguably, strength loss may be the most important functional consequence and the most reliable indicator of muscle damage (15,50).”
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MethodRecovery of Function in Skeletal Muscle Following 2 Different Contraction-Induced Injuries
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Interactions between muscle and the immune system during modified musculoskeletal loading.
Tidball, J. (2002) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1097/00003086-200210001-00012 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Marqueste, T., Giannesini, B., Fur, Y. L., Cozzone, P. J., & Bendahan, D. (2008) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00738.2007 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Blood LDH and/or CK activity measurements have been widely used to illustrate eccentric exercise-induced skeletal muscle damages in both animals and humans (2, 16, 57).”
BackgroundInfluentialRegeneration of new fibers in muscles of old rats reduces contraction-induced injury
Devor, S. T., & Faulkner, J. A. (1999) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1999.87.2.750 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“The newly regenerated portions of the fibers appear to be stronger and less susceptible to stretch and to injury (10, 12, 22).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMorelli, K. M., Brown, L. B., & Warren, G. L. (2017) · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1177/0363546517697957 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Influence of gender and experience on the maximal instep soccer kick
Shan, G. (2009) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461390802594250 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Respiratory muscle injury in animal models and humans
Reid, W., & MacGowan, N. (2004) · Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1023/a:1006803703128 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Avenanthramide supplementation attenuates exercise-induced inflammation in postmenopausal women
Koenig, R. T., Dickman, J. R., Kang, C., Zhang, T., Chu, Y.-F., & Ji, L. L. (2014) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-21 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Previous studies have shown that a single bout of unaccustomed eccentric exercise can lead to a protective effect whereupon a second bout of eccentric exercise may result in less muscle damage [32-34].”
BackgroundSharma, N., Medikayala, S., Defour, A., Rayavarapu, S., Brown, K. J., Hathout, Y., & Jaiswal, J. K. (2012) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m112.354415 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“This is followed by a late phase of healing where the stump and necrotic tissue are cleared by inflammatory cells, the myogenic cells are activated to fuse with the myofibers, and the damagedmuscle is regenerated (4, 5).”
BackgroundVella, L. D., Markworth, J. F., Farnfield, M. M., Maddipati, K. R., Russell, A. P., & Cameron‐Smith, D. (2019) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14108 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“However, unaccustomed exercise, especially when comprising a large eccentric component, can cause skeletal muscle injury and initiate an acute inflammatory response (Armstrong et al. 1991; Faulkner et al. 1993; Tidball 1995).”
BackgroundDiaphragm injury in individuals with airflow obstruction.
Macgowan, N. A., Evans, K. G., Road, J. D., & Reid, W. (2001) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.163.7.2001042 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Chronic Eccentric Cycling Improves Quadriceps Muscle Structure and Maximum Cycling Power
Leong, C.-H., McDermott, W. J., Elmer, S. J., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-0033-1358471 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Contraction-induced injury to the extensor digitorum longus muscles of rats: the role of vitamin E
van der Meulen, J. H., McArdle, A., Jackson, M. J., & Faulkner, J. A. (1997) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1997.83.3.817 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Thereafter, the force deficit provides an indirect measure of the totality of the damage, but if recovery from fatigue is delayed to 24 h the force deficit may reflect both fatigue and secondary injury (8).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationQuantification of muscle fiber strain during in vivo repetitive stretch-shortening cycles
Butterfield, T. A., & Herzog, W. (2005) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01128.2004 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“With the muscle activated, net strain is similar to what we have defined as active strain, and what is typically referred to simply as “fiber strain” in the literature (10, 16, 26, 27, 44, 58).”
BackgroundBreaking sarcomeres by in vitro exercise
Orfanos, Z., Gödderz, M. P. O., Soroka, E., Gödderz, T., Rumyantseva, A., van der Ven, P. F. M., Hawke, T. J., & Fürst, D. O. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep19614 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Diffusion tensor MRI to assess skeletal muscle disruption following eccentric exercise
Cermak, N. M., Noseworthy, M. D., Bourgeois, J. M., et al. (2011) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.23276 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“The 24 h post-exercise time point was selected based on previous research which demonstrated significant Z-band disruption at this time.(26)”
MethodDelayed Diaphragm Injury and Diaphragm Force Production
Jiang, T.-X., Reid, W. D., & ROAD, J. D. (1998) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.157.3.9707056 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Chou, C., Sung, Y.-C., Davison, G., Chen, C., & Liao, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijms.26340 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“During intensive TKD competitions, the athletes have to experience numerous eccentric movements from activities such as jumping, rapid moving, kicking and landing, and eccentric exercise components can damage muscle tissue and provoke acute inflammatory responses [44, 45].”
Time Course of Diaphragm Injury and Calpain Activity During Resistive Loading
Reid, W. D., & BELCASTRO, A. N. (2000) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.5.9906033 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Itoh, K., & Kawakita, K. (2002) · The Japanese Journal of Physiology · doi:10.2170/jjphysiol.52.173 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Power, G. A., Dalton, B. H., Rice, C. L., & Vandervoort, A. A. (2010) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01254.2009 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Neuromuscular fatigue, defined as any exercise-induced reduction in the generation of torque or power, can be manifested through both central or peripheral factors (22), and its analysis is further complicated by many influences such as species, sex, and muscle fiber type differences, whose interactive effect will dep…”
BackgroundBabul, S., Rhodes, E. C., TAUNTON, J. E., et al. (2003) · Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine · doi:10.1097/00042752-200305000-00003 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“force has been reported in response to phagocytic activity at the site of initial damage.(20) This lends evidence and support to the theory that more than 1 mechanism is involved in exercise-induced muscle damage (ie, mechanical and biochemical).”
BackgroundInfluentialSanchez‐Martinez, J., Santos‐Lozano, A., García‐Hermoso, A., Sadarangani, K. P., & Cristi‐Montero, C. (2017) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2017.11.003 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
- Authors
- Faulkner, J. A., Brooks, S. V., & Opiteck, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Faulkner, John A
- ORCID
- Brooks, Susan V
- Venue
- Physical Therapy
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1993-12-01
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 911-921
- ISSN
- 0031-9023 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-6724
- OpenAlex
- W2269278230
- Cited by
- 341
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 4.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Physical Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01ag006157-14)
- National Institute on Aging (AG00114, AG-06157)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- eccentric contraction, muscle degeneration and regeneration, muscle soreness, calcium influx, glutathione oxidation, muscle force production, muscle recovery, injury prevention
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biomechanical Phenomena, Biopsy, Calcium, Clinical Protocols, Disease Models, Animal, Exercise Therapy, Glutathione, Humans, Isometric Contraction, Isotonic Contraction, Muscle Contraction, Muscles, Pain, Wounds and Injuries, Mice, Rats
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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