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Injury to Skeletal Muscle Fibers During Contractions: Conditions of Occurrence and Prevention
Abstract
Contraction-induced injury results in the degeneration and regeneration of muscle fibers. Of the three types of contractions--shortening (concentric), isometric, and lengthening (eccentric)--injury is most likely to occur and the severity of the injury is greatest during lengthening contractions. The magnitude of the injury to muscle fibers may be assessed by direct measures of cellular and ultrastructural damage; by indirect measures of changes in enzyme efflux, calcium influx, ratio of oxidized to reduced glutathione, and force development; and, in human beings, by reports of muscle soreness. The sequence of events includes an initial injury that is primarily mechanical and a secondary metabolic, or biochemical, injury that peaks 1 to 3 days after the injurious contractions. The recovery from contraction-induced injury is usually complete within 30 days. Repeated exposures to protocols of lengthening contractions result in "trained" muscles that are not injured by the protocol that previously caused injury.
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“If repeated multiple times, eccentric contractions are a useful tool to induce a physiologically-relevant injury to skeletal muscle, resulting in damage to the contractile apparatus and loss of function (2, 3).”
From Phytoecdysteroids Accelerate Recovery of Skeletal Muscle Function Following in vivo Eccentric Contraction-Induced Injury in Adult and Old Mice (2021) · cites this paper as [3]
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InfluentialThe effects of massage on delayed onset muscle soreness
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BackgroundContraction-induced muscle damage is unaffected by vitamin E supplementation
Beaton, L. J., ALLAN, D. A., Tarnopolsky, M. A., Tiidus, P. M., & Phillips, S. M. (2002) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-200205000-00012 · Cited by 161
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“Several outstanding studies in recent years have focused on the contribution of mechanical factors in eccentric contractioninduced muscle injury (9, 17, 24, 30, 38, 54); however, to date there is limited information on the cellular consequences of a single eccentric contraction-induced injury.”
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Associations Between Muscle Soreness, Damage, and Fatigue
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“This bimodal recovery pattern (Faulkner et al. 1993) has frequently been observed after exercises involving eccentric and/or SSC muscle actions (MacIntyre et al.”
BackgroundExternal work and potential for elastic storage at the limb joints of running dogs
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“Acute muscle injury encompasses exposure to extreme temperatures, ischemia, or trauma, such as stretch injury that results in degeneration, inflammation, regeneration, or fibrosis (23, 32).”
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“The loss of the ability of skeletal muscle to generate force is considered one of the most appropriate and valid means to quantify exercise-induced muscle damage (Faulkner et al. 1993; Faulkner and Brooks 1997; McArdle and Jackson 1999; Warren et al. 1999).”
BackgroundExpression and Regulation of Excitation-Contraction Coupling Proteins in Aging Skeletal Muscle
Delbono, O. (2011) · Current Aging Science · doi:10.2174/1874609811104030248 · Cited by 92
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“Most of these effects are in the direction of Faulkner’s bimodal reduction, with both acute and delayed decreases in neuromuscular performance (Faulkner et al. 1993).”
BackgroundDelbono, O., Rodrigues, A. C. Z., Bonilla, H. J., & Messi, M. L. (2021) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2021.101305 · Cited by 86
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“Numerous studies report that muscle injuries after SSC exercise are associated with increased CK activity around the second day after this kind of exercise (5,12,20).”
BackgroundRathbone, C. R., Wenke, J. C., Warren, G. L., & Armstrong, R. B. (2003) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00032.2003 · Cited by 77
“Arguably, strength loss is the most important functional consequence and the most reliable indicator of injury (6, 27).”
BackgroundRowlands, D. S., & Thomson, J. S. (2009) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181a00c80 · Cited by 76
“With regular training, protein turnover (23) and resistance exercise-induced muscle damage are attenuated (5), which could be why highly trained lifters have not been found to respond to HMB supplementation to the same extent as previously untrained lifters.”
BackgroundRepetitive strain in the workplace
Mackinnon, S. E., & Novak, C. B. (1997) · The Journal Of Hand Surgery · doi:10.1016/s0363-5023(05)80174-1 · Cited by 76
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Self-citationDissociated Time Course of Recovery Between Genders After Resistance Exercise
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“Arguably, strength loss may be the most important functional consequence and the most reliable indicator of muscle damage (15,50).”
BackgroundEccentric contraction injury in dystrophic canine muscle
Childers, M. K., Okamura, C. S., Bogan, D. J., Bogan, J. R., Petroski, G. F., McDonald, K. S., & Kornegay, J. N. (2002) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1053/apmr.2002.35109 · Cited by 74
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“Neutrophils are also recruited to sites of tissue damage and some types of acute exercise, such as eccentric contractions, result in damage and inflammation of muscle tissue with subsequent delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) [7,8,25,36,41,70,72].”
BackgroundDamage to the human quadriceps muscle from eccentric exercise and the training effect
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“The 2-h post-exercise measurement was included as the earliest possible time at which there was no longer significant metabolic fatigue (Faulkner et al., 1993).”
MethodRecovery of Function in Skeletal Muscle Following 2 Different Contraction-Induced Injuries
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“Blood LDH and/or CK activity measurements have been widely used to illustrate eccentric exercise-induced skeletal muscle damages in both animals and humans (2, 16, 57).”
BackgroundInfluentialRegeneration of new fibers in muscles of old rats reduces contraction-induced injury
Devor, S. T., & Faulkner, J. A. (1999) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1999.87.2.750 · Cited by 63
“The newly regenerated portions of the fibers appear to be stronger and less susceptible to stretch and to injury (10, 12, 22).”
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Influence of gender and experience on the maximal instep soccer kick
Shan, G. (2009) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461390802594250 · Cited by 59
Respiratory muscle injury in animal models and humans
Reid, W., & MacGowan, N. (2004) · Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry · doi:10.1023/a:1006803703128 · Cited by 24
Avenanthramide supplementation attenuates exercise-induced inflammation in postmenopausal women
Koenig, R. T., Dickman, J. R., Kang, C., Zhang, T., Chu, Y.-F., & Ji, L. L. (2014) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-21 · Cited by 58
“Previous studies have shown that a single bout of unaccustomed eccentric exercise can lead to a protective effect whereupon a second bout of eccentric exercise may result in less muscle damage [32-34].”
BackgroundSharma, N., Medikayala, S., Defour, A., Rayavarapu, S., Brown, K. J., Hathout, Y., & Jaiswal, J. K. (2012) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m112.354415 · Cited by 56
“This is followed by a late phase of healing where the stump and necrotic tissue are cleared by inflammatory cells, the myogenic cells are activated to fuse with the myofibers, and the damagedmuscle is regenerated (4, 5).”
BackgroundVella, L. D., Markworth, J. F., Farnfield, M. M., Maddipati, K. R., Russell, A. P., & Cameron‐Smith, D. (2019) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14108 · Cited by 55
“However, unaccustomed exercise, especially when comprising a large eccentric component, can cause skeletal muscle injury and initiate an acute inflammatory response (Armstrong et al. 1991; Faulkner et al. 1993; Tidball 1995).”
BackgroundDiaphragm injury in individuals with airflow obstruction.
Macgowan, N. A., Evans, K. G., Road, J. D., & Reid, W. (2001) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.163.7.2001042 · Cited by 58
Chronic Eccentric Cycling Improves Quadriceps Muscle Structure and Maximum Cycling Power
Leong, C.-H., McDermott, W. J., Elmer, S. J., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-0033-1358471 · Cited by 54
Contraction-induced injury to the extensor digitorum longus muscles of rats: the role of vitamin E
van der Meulen, J. H., McArdle, A., Jackson, M. J., & Faulkner, J. A. (1997) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1997.83.3.817 · Cited by 54
“Thereafter, the force deficit provides an indirect measure of the totality of the damage, but if recovery from fatigue is delayed to 24 h the force deficit may reflect both fatigue and secondary injury (8).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationQuantification of muscle fiber strain during in vivo repetitive stretch-shortening cycles
Butterfield, T. A., & Herzog, W. (2005) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01128.2004 · Cited by 53
“With the muscle activated, net strain is similar to what we have defined as active strain, and what is typically referred to simply as “fiber strain” in the literature (10, 16, 26, 27, 44, 58).”
BackgroundBreaking sarcomeres by in vitro exercise
Orfanos, Z., Gödderz, M. P. O., Soroka, E., Gödderz, T., Rumyantseva, A., van der Ven, P. F. M., Hawke, T. J., & Fürst, D. O. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep19614 · Cited by 54
Diffusion tensor MRI to assess skeletal muscle disruption following eccentric exercise
Cermak, N. M., Noseworthy, M. D., Bourgeois, J. M., et al. (2011) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.23276 · Cited by 51
“The 24 h post-exercise time point was selected based on previous research which demonstrated significant Z-band disruption at this time.(26)”
MethodDelayed Diaphragm Injury and Diaphragm Force Production
Jiang, T.-X., Reid, W. D., & ROAD, J. D. (1998) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.157.3.9707056 · Cited by 48
Chou, C., Sung, Y.-C., Davison, G., Chen, C., & Liao, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijms.26340 · Cited by 51
“During intensive TKD competitions, the athletes have to experience numerous eccentric movements from activities such as jumping, rapid moving, kicking and landing, and eccentric exercise components can damage muscle tissue and provoke acute inflammatory responses [44, 45].”
Time Course of Diaphragm Injury and Calpain Activity During Resistive Loading
Reid, W. D., & BELCASTRO, A. N. (2000) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.5.9906033 · Cited by 48
Itoh, K., & Kawakita, K. (2002) · The Japanese Journal of Physiology · doi:10.2170/jjphysiol.52.173 · Cited by 47
Power, G. A., Dalton, B. H., Rice, C. L., & Vandervoort, A. A. (2010) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01254.2009 · Cited by 47
“Neuromuscular fatigue, defined as any exercise-induced reduction in the generation of torque or power, can be manifested through both central or peripheral factors (22), and its analysis is further complicated by many influences such as species, sex, and muscle fiber type differences, whose interactive effect will dep…”
BackgroundBabul, S., Rhodes, E. C., TAUNTON, J. E., et al. (2003) · Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine · doi:10.1097/00042752-200305000-00003 · Cited by 45
“force has been reported in response to phagocytic activity at the site of initial damage.(20) This lends evidence and support to the theory that more than 1 mechanism is involved in exercise-induced muscle damage (ie, mechanical and biochemical).”
BackgroundInfluentialSanchez‐Martinez, J., Santos‐Lozano, A., García‐Hermoso, A., Sadarangani, K. P., & Cristi‐Montero, C. (2017) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2017.11.003 · Cited by 46
Metadata
- Authors
- Faulkner, J. A., Brooks, S. V., & Opiteck, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Faulkner, John A
- ORCID
- Brooks, Susan V
- Venue
- Physical Therapy
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1993-12-01
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 911-921
- ISSN
- 0031-9023 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-6724
- OpenAlex
- W2269278230
- Cited by
- 341
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 4.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Physical Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01ag006157-14)
- National Institute on Aging (AG00114, AG-06157)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- eccentric contraction, muscle degeneration and regeneration, muscle soreness, calcium influx, glutathione oxidation, muscle force production, muscle recovery, injury prevention
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biomechanical Phenomena, Biopsy, Calcium, Clinical Protocols, Disease Models, Animal, Exercise Therapy, Glutathione, Humans, Isometric Contraction, Isotonic Contraction, Muscle Contraction, Muscles, Pain, Wounds and Injuries, Mice, Rats
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