Long working hours and sleep disturbances: the Whitehall II prospective cohort study
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STUDY OBJECTIVE: To examine whether exposure to long working hours predicts various forms of sleep disturbance; short sleep, difficulty falling asleep, frequent waking, early waking and waking without feeling refreshed. DESIGN: Prospective study with 2 measurements of working hours (phase 3, 1991-1994 and phase 5, 1997-1999) and 2 measurements of subjective sleep disturbances (phase 5 and phase 7, 2002-2004). SETTING: The Whitehall II study of British civil servants. PARTICIPANTS: Full time workers free of sleep disturbances at phase 5 and employed at phases 5 and 7 (n = 937-1594) or at phases 3, 5, and 7 (n = 886-1510). MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Working more than 55 hours a week, compared with working 35-40 hours a week, was related to incident sleep disturbances; demographics-adjusted odds ratio (95% CI) 1.98 (1.05, 3.76) for shortened sleeping hours, 3.68 (1.58, 8.58) for difficulty falling asleep; and 1.98 (1.04, 3.77) for waking without feeling refreshed. Repeat exposure to long working hours was associated with odds ratio 3.24 (1.45, 7.27) for shortened sleep, 6.66 (2.64, 16.83) for difficulty falling asleep, and 2.23 (1.16, 4.31) for early morning awakenings. Some associations were attenuated after adjustment for other risk factors. To a great extent, similar results were obtained using working hours as a continuous variable. Imputation of missing values supported the findings on shortened sleep and difficulty in falling asleep. CONCLUSION: Working long hours appears to be a risk factor for the development of shortened sleeping hours and difficulty falling asleep.
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As globalization and technology penetrate society, sleep-related beliefs and practices can change, including longer working hours, shift work, and discouraging naps.
“As globalization and technology penetrate society, sleep-related beliefs and practices can change, including the provision of longer working hours,113–120 shift work,121–124 and discouraging otherwise culturally appropriate naps.125–127”
From Sleep, Health, and Society (2017) · cites this paper as [119]
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- Authors
- Virtanen, M., Ferrie, J. E., Gimeno, D., Vahtera, J., Elovainio, M., Singh-Manoux, A., Marmot, M. G., & Kivimäki, M.
- Affiliations
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (FI)
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Virtanen, Marianna
- Venue
- SLEEP
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2009-06
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 737-745
- ISSN
- 0161-8105 (ISSN-L)
- 1550-9109
- PMC
- PMC2690560
- OpenAlex
- W1804651753
- Cited by
- 316
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 14.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- SLEEP (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- STM:n Hallinnonalan avoin julkaisuarkisto (Julkari) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research
- British Heart Foundation (RG/07/008/23674)
- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (HS06516)
- National Institute on Aging (AG 13196, R37AG013196, R01AG013196)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL36310, R01HL036310)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Keywords
- long working hours, sleep disorders, short sleep duration, difficulty falling asleep, early morning awakening, occupational health, public sector employees
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Cross-Sectional Studies, Fatigue, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Leisure Activities, London, Male, Middle Aged, Occupational Diseases, Prospective Studies, Risk Factors, Statistics as Topic, Work Schedule Tolerance, Cohort Studies, Workload
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