The Impact of Parental Affective Disorder on Depression in Offspring: A Longitudinal Follow-up in a Nonreferred Sample
Abstract
Objective This study explored the effects of parental affective disorder on offspring in a nonreferred health maintenance organization 4 years after initial examination.Method The sample, average age 18.5 years, included 91% of the 153 youngsters initially studied. The main instruments were structured diagnostic interviews scored according to criterion systems for both parents and children; assessment of the youngsters was blind to the previous assessment.Results Rates of major depressive disorder were higher in the children of parents with affective disorder (26%) compared with those whose parents had no disorder (10%).Conclusion Depression and other parental affective disorders, as they occur in the community in parents who often are neither recognized nor treated, are associated with serious affective disorder in offspring. Clinical and preventive approaches for these offspring are needed and should be targeted to all families in which there is serious parental affective disorder, not just those who present for psychiatric treatment.
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Parent psychological well-being and emotional coping styles are linked to anxiety symptoms in youth, and parental mental health is an important predictor of youth mental health outcomes and worthy of being its own clinical target.
“However, research indicates that psychological well-being and emotional coping styles in parents are linked to anxiety symptoms in youth, aligning with the broader empirical literature on parental mental health as an important variable that predicts youth mental health outcomes and that is worthy of being its own clinical target (e.g., Beardslee and colleagues [13]).”
From A Qualitative Study of Participant Feedback on an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Group-Based Intervention for Parents of Youth with Anxiety Disorders. (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
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BackgroundAdaptation in Homeless Children
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“Parental depression was chosen because the risk to childrenwithin the family has been effectively studied, with the risk of subsequent mental health problems in these children being up to 40% (Beardslee et al., 1993).”
BackgroundMethodBilineal Transmission and Phenotypic Variation of Tourette's Disorder in a Large Pedigree
McMahon, W. M., van de WETERING, B. M., Filloux, F. M., BETIT, K., Coon, H. H., & Leppert, M. (1996) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199605000-00023 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
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“Children of depressed parents are at particular risk for depression ( Beardslee, Keller, Lavori, Staley, & Sacks, 1993; Weissman et al., 1987), but diagnosable depressive disorders typically do not appear until late childhood (Fleming & Offord, 1990).”
Vidair, H. B., Reyes, J. A., Shen, S., Parrilla-Escobar, M. A., Heleniak, C. M., Hollin, I. L., Woodruff, S. C., Turner, J. B., & Rynn, M. A. (2011) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.02.002 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
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“As reported by Beardslee et al. (1993) , children of depressed parents had a 60% risk of developing major depression by the age of 25. Other studies have demonstrated that offsprings of depressed parents have up to 6 times higher rates of depression than offspring of nondepressed parents (Hammen, 1991; Keller et al.,…”
BackgroundChildhood depression: Rethinking the role of the school
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“A parallel but distinct argument is that the presence of family disruption (e.g. divorce) potentiates the negative effects of depression (Beardslee, et al., 1993).”
BackgroundHavinga, P., Boschloo, L., Bloemen, A. J. P., Nauta, M. H., de Vries, S. O., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Schoevers, R. A., & Hartman, C. A. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.15m09936 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Loeber, R., Hipwell, A. E., Battista, D. R., Sembower, M. A., & Stouthamer‐Loeber, M. (2009) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9337-x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
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Feder, A., Alonso, A., Tang, M., Liriano, W., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D. J., Barranco, E., Wang, Y., Verdeli, H., WICKRAMARATNE, P. J., et al. (2008) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20522 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Children of depressed parents in these prior studies demonstrated increased rates of depressive, anxiety and disruptive behavior disorders, and lower psychosocial functioning[3–10].”
BackgroundResultKunas, S. L., Lautenbacher, L. M., Lueken, U., & Hilbert, K. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.092 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
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Latino sibling knowledge and adjustment to chronic disability.
Lobato, D. J., Kao, B. T., & Plante, W. A. (2005) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.4.625 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Psychopharmacology of Child and Adolescent Major Depression: Present Status and Future Directions
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The prevention of depression in children and adolescents
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“sion and negative child mental health outcomes (both depressive disorders and/or non-affective disorders) has been observed [4, 31].”
The Timing of Parent and Child Depression: A Hopelessness Theory Perspective
Abela, J. R. Z., Skitch, S. A., Adams, P., & Hankin, B. L. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_9 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…of parents with a history of major depressive episodes are four to six times more likely than other children to develop depressive episodes (Beardslee et al., 1993; Hammen et al., 1990; Weissman et al., 1997), the use of such a sample also maximized the number of children who experienced…”
BackgroundThe Effect of Home Environment on Adolescent Substance Use and Depressive Symptoms
Su, S. S., Hoffmann, J. P., Gerstein, D. R., & Johnson, R. A. (1997) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/002204269702700412 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
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Assessing Childhood Psychopathology and Developmental Disabilities
Matson, J. L., Andrasik, F., & Matson, M. L. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09528-8 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Interventions with depressed mothers and their infants: Modifying interactive behaviours
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Resilience in the Face of Maternal Psychopathology and Adverse Life Events
Tiêt, Q. Q., Bird, H., Hoven, C. W., Wu, P., Moore, R. E., & Davies, M. (2001) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1023/a:1012528910206 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Studies have shown this relationship in schizophrenia (Garver, 1997; Kendler, Gruenberg, & Tsuang, 1985), affective disorders ( Beardslee, Keller, Lavori, Staley, & Sacks, 1993; Hammen, 1991; Weissman, Warner, Wickramaratne, Moreau, & Olfson, 1997), anxiety disorders (Beidel & Turner, 1997), and alcoholism (Beardslee,…”
BackgroundThe experience of being an adolescent child of a parent who has a mood disorder
Meadus, R. J., & Johnson, B. A. (2000) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2850.2000.00319.x · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Kaminski, K. M., & Garber, J. (2002) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200204000-00013 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
van Loon, L. M. A., van de Ven, M. O. M., van Doesum, K. T. M., Hosman, C. M. H., & Witteman, C. L. M. (2015) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-015-9304-3 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Several empirical studies have reported that the risk of these children to develop problems is two to even thirteen times higher than is the risk of children of parents without psychological problems (Beardslee et al. 1993; Dean et al. 2010; Weissman et al. 2006).”
Contagious depression: Automatic mimicry and the mirror neuron system - A review
Paz, L. V., Viola, T. W., Milanesi, B. B., Sulzbach, J. H., Mestriner, R. G., Wieck, A., & Xavier, L. L. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.12.032 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Children of mentally ill parents—a pilot study of a group intervention program
Christiansen, H., Anding, J., Schrott, B., & Röhrle, B. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01494 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“In contrast to the original studies by Beardslee (Beardslee et al., 1993; Beardslee, 2009) there was no long-term follow-up.”
ResultMcMakin, D. L., Burkhouse, K. L., Olino, T. M., Siegle, G. J., Dahl, R. E., & Silk, J. S. (2011) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9540-4 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Depressive disorders are often severe in this population, including an earlier age of onset, longer duration of episodes, higher social impairment, and higher rates of suicide relative to other depressed adolescents (Beardslee et al. 1993).”
Burstein, M., Ginsburg, G. S., Petras, H., & Ialongo, N. S. (2009) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0152-y · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Cortes, R. C., Fleming, C. B., Catalano, R., & Brown, E. C. (2006) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9083-0 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Early studies investigating the relations between parent and child depression were cross-sectional, or longitudinal studies of short duration, and tended to emphasize correlations between parental and child depression or the proportion of depressed parents who had depressed children ( Beardslee et al., 1993; Billings…”
BackgroundPurc‐Stephenson, R. J., & Lyseng, A. (2016) · Cancer Treatment Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2016.07.005 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Also, when the seriousness of the mother’s illness is clear, a child might understand the context of their mother’s distress and feel less anxious or confused about it [73].”
BackgroundLauritzen, C., Reedtz, C., Rognmo, K., Nilsen, M. A., & Walstad, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00507 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Szigethy, E., Hardy, D., Craig, A. E., Low, C. A., & Kukic, S. (2008) · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases · doi:10.1002/ibd.20775 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Murray, L. (2009) · Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/02668730903227289 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Kennard, B. D., Hughes, J. L., Stewart, S. M., Mayes, T. L., Nightingale-Teresi, J., Tao, R., Carmody, T. J., & Emslie, G. J. (2008) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31816bfff5 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Khasakhala, L. I., Ndetei, D. M., Mathai, M. A., & Harder, V. S. (2013) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1744-859x-12-15 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“; licensee BioMed Cen Creative Commons Attribution License (http:/ distribution, and reproduction in any medium disorders [8-15].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe County Schools Mental Health Coalition: A Model for Community-Level Impact
Reinke, W. M., Thompson, A. M., Herman, K. C., Holmes, S. R., Owens, S., Cohen, D., Tanner-Jones, L. A., Henry, L. M., Green, A., & Copeland, C. (2017) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-017-9227-2 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Platt, B., Sfärlea, A., Buhl, C., Löchner, J., Neumüller, J., Thomsen, L. A., Starman‐Wöhrle, K., Salemink, E., & Schulte‐Körne, G. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01105-2 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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“…a vast body of research has accumulated indicating that children of depressed parents are more likely than other children to develop depression (Beardslee et al., 1993; Hammen et al., 1990; Weisman et al., 1997), relatively little research has focused on developing depression treatment and…”
BackgroundSex differences in the familial transmission of mood disorders
Currier, D., Mann, M. J., Oquendo, M. A., Galfalvy, H., & Mann, J. J. (2006) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.04.014 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Beardslee et al. (1993) found duration of parental MDD predicted adolescent mood disorder, but found no difference in transmission by parents gender.”
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Is maternal depression related to mother and adolescent reports of family functioning?☆
Pérez, J. C., Coo, S., & Irarrázaval, M. (2018) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.12.013 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Course and outcome of major depressive disorder in non-referred adolescents
Essau, C. A. (2006) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.09.010 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Other factors such as parental history of depression (Beardslee et al., 1993; Hammen and Brennan, 2003; Klein et al., 2001), negative life events (Goodyer et al.”
BackgroundTodd, R. D., Reich, W., & Reich, T. (1994) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199402000-00007 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
- Authors
- BEARDSLEE, W. R., KELLER, M. B., LAVORI, P. W., STALEY, J., & SACKS, N.
- Affiliations
- Brown University (US)
- Corresponding author
- BEARDSLEE, WILLIAM R.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1993-07
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 723-730
- ISSN
- 0890-8567 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2148329525
- Cited by
- 189
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 6.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh034780-07)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH025478, 2-UO2-MH25475-09, R0-1-MH34780-3)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Family Support in Illness
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, intergenerational transmission of depression, family history of mental illness, health maintenance organizations, longitudinal follow-up, depression prevention
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depressive Disorder, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Personality Development, Life Tables, Child of Impaired Parents
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