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Assessment methods in human body composition
Open accessAbstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The present study reviews the most recently developed and commonly used methods for the determination of human body composition in vivo with relevance for nutritional assessment. RECENT FINDINGS: Body composition measurement methods are continuously being perfected with the most commonly used methods being bioelectrical impedance analysis, dilution techniques, air displacement plethysmography, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, and MRI or magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Recent developments include three-dimensional photonic scanning and quantitative magnetic resonance. Collectively, these techniques allow for the measurement of fat, fat-free mass, bone mineral content, total body water, extracellular water, total adipose tissue and its subdepots (visceral, subcutaneous, and intermuscular), skeletal muscle, select organs, and ectopic fat depots. SUMMARY: There is an ongoing need to perfect methods that provide information beyond mass and structure (static measures) to kinetic measures that yield information on metabolic and biological functions. On the basis of the wide range of measurable properties, analytical methods and known body composition models, clinicians and scientists can quantify a number of body components and with longitudinal assessment, can track changes in health and disease with implications for understanding efficacy of nutritional and clinical interventions, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment in clinical settings. With the greater need to understand precursors of health risk beginning in childhood, a gap exists in appropriate in-vivo measurement methods beginning at birth.
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“Additionally, incorporating blood variables such as lipid profile, glucose levels, and inflammatory markers can offer insights into metabolic health and obesity-related risks beyond what BMI alone can provide [62].”
From Advantages and Limitations of the Body Mass Index (BMI) to Assess Adult Obesity (2024) · cites this paper as [62]
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Raymond‐Pope, C. J., Bosch, T. A., & Dengel, D. R. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Densitometry · doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2019.04.007 · Cited by 4
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Perfis metabólico e nutricional como preditores da síndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono
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“There are also variations between individuals; changes that occur in aging (Feinsod et al., 2004) and in body weight or body composition differences (Lee & Gallagher, 2008; Wang et al., 1999) between individuals may affect the requirements.”
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“Various methods and tools are available to assess muscle strength, muscle quantity, and physical performance for diagnosing sarcopenia [1, 5, 6].”
Understanding Body Composition Analysis in Obesity Management
Agarwal, K., Manoharan, F., & Kapoor, N. (2025) · Journal of the Association of Physicians of India · doi:10.59556/japi.73.0846 · Cited by 3
“29 However, by optimal standardization, they provide a quick estimate of FFM.”
Popp, C. J., & Jesch, E. D. (2025) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2025.1583432 · Cited by 3
“There are limitations to the use of the two-compartment model of body composition (FM and FFM) as the two-compartment model assumes known proportions of FFM, as water, protein, and mineral are constant (35).”
Encarnação, S., Schneider, A., Encarnação, R., Leite, L. B., Forte, P. M., Fernandes, H., & Monteiro, A. M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-01702-y · Cited by 3
“Nevertheless, a deeper analysis considering another body compartment (muscle, fat, or even bone tissue) can enrich the quality of inferences about the body composition changes 72 .”
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“La fiabilidad y la precisión de este método dependen del tipo de instrumento, los puntos de colocación de los electrodos, el nivel de hidratación, la alimentación, el ciclo menstrual, la temperatura ambiente y la ecuación de predicción utilizada (Mattsson & Thomas, 2006; Lee & Gallagher, 2008).”
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“However, BIA can directly measure body composition, such as fat mass (FM), FFM, and body moisture (Deurenberg et al. 1991; Gonzalez et al. 2016), and is simple, low cost, and does not involve radiation exposure (Lee and Gallagher 2008; Sergi et al. 2017).”
BackgroundDual X-ray absorptiometry-derived total and regional body volume
Czeck, M. A., Roelofs, E. J., Juckett, W. T., & Dengel, D. R. (2022) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2022.10.011 · Cited by 3
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“Previous studies have shown that DXA is low cost, has low radiation exposure ( 1 μSv for whole-body scans), and is reliable for research setting [9, 25, 26].”
BackgroundNutritional Challenges in Paediatric Oncology: Screening and Managing Malnutrition and Sarcopenia
Mastrangelo, S., Romano, A., Maurizi, P., Rizzo, D., Attinà, G., & Ruggiero, A. (2024) · Biomedical & Pharmacology Journal · doi:10.13005/bpj/3017 · Cited by 3
The Prospective Applications of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis in Postpartum Women
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“Body composition measurement techniques are continuously evolving, leading to greater precision and ease of measurement [31,32].”
Body Composition Affects Urea Distribution Volume Estimated by Watson's Formula
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“…(measured) using different techniques considered as “gold standards” including indirect calorimetry and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) (Lee and Gallagher 2008; O’Riordan et al. 2010; Frankenfield 2013) or determined using different equations involving the same population through…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialNutritional Assessment and Body Composition in Critically Ill Children as Prognostic Indicators
Zamberlan, P., de Carvalho, W. B., & Delgado, A. F. (2019) · Current Treatment Options in Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s40746-019-00169-0 · Cited by 3
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“[9] BIA는 소량의 전류에 대한 신체의 저항을 통해 체수분량을 추정하는 단순하고 비침습적인 방법이다.[10] 하지만, DXA와 BIA 모두 추가적인 기구를 통한 검사를 시행하여야 한다는 점에서 임상에서 사용하기에는 어려운 점이 많았다.”
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“Although the preferred method to estimate body fat is Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), this procedure is expensive, difficult to implement in practice and special equipment is necessary; therefore, its use in clinical practice is limited (Lee and Gallagher 2008).”
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Body composition models based on anthropometry, systematic literature review
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Quantification of Lateralized Overgrowth and Genotype‐Driven Tissue Composition
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Assessment of the Obese Patient
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“There are a range of methods that are more accurate than BMI for estimating body fat [ 26 ].”
MethodOverweight and obesity in the population of 60-year-old and older inhabitants of Biała Podlaska
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Longitudinal validity of abdominal adiposity assessment by regional bioelectrical impedance
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“Direct measurements of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and intraabdominal (IAT) have been limited to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT); additionally, dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) offer partial measurements of abdominal adipose compartments [1] and models to estimate the total IAT and SA…”
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Determination of Body Fat Percentage by Body State Devices and Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry
Mostafa, R. A., Negm, D., & ElSawy, N. A. (2019) · Asian Journal of Medicine and Health · doi:10.9734/ajmah/2019/v17i230163 · Cited by 3
“that are inaccurate bias will be introduced [9].”
BackgroundAçar, Y., & Köksal, E. (2025) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-024-00597-x · Cited by 7
Guerrero-Agenjo, C. M., Rodríguez‐Cañamero, S., López‐González, Á., Picón, C. R., Díaz-González, S., Durantez‐Fernández, C., Laredo‐Aguilera, J. A., Carmona‐Torres, J. M., Hidalgo, J. D. L.-T., & Rabanales-Sotos, J. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13202647 · Cited by 5
“One of the criteria for assessing health status is the assessment of body composition, with which the balance between body fat and muscle tissue can be determined [8].”
He, K., Li, Y., Cho, H., Hohenberg, J., Nagel, E., Ramel, S. E., Bell, K., Park, J., Wei, D., & Ranger, B. J. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3639889 · Cited by 2
“Nutritional assessment in infancy is crucial, as this is a critical period for growth and development during which disruptions can lead to lifelong consequences [2].”
Jaggers, J. R., Kindred, M. M., Porterc, R., Sui, X., Lavie, C. J., & Prasad, V. K. (2026) · Mayo Clinic Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2026.06.007 · Cited by 3
Equação de estimativa da composição corporal de idosos do sexo masculino
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Bio-Electrical Impedance Analysis in Patients with Critical Illnesses
Jalalzadeh, M., & Hajiesmaeili, M. (2016) · Nephro-Urology Monthly · doi:10.5812/numonthly.41514 · Cited by 2
“The standard methods to measure body composition and TBW are isotope dilution, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), underwater weighing, portable methods, and airdisplacement plethysmography (19, 20).”
MethodRathnayake, N., Alwis, G., Lenora, J., & Lekamwasam, S. (2020) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2020/2087346 · Cited by 2
“Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) estimates TBFP with a high accuracy and is considered as the gold standard reference method for estimating body composition [7].”
BackgroundMethodTotal and regional dual X-ray absorptiometry derived four-compartment model
Czeck, M. A., Juckett, W. T., Roelofs, E. J., & Dengel, D. R. (2023) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2023.03.014 · Cited by 2
Association of changes in predicted body composition with subsequent risk of dementia
Kim, S. M., Choi, S., Lee, G., Oh, Y. H., Son, J. S., Ko, A., Kim, J. S., Cho, Y., Keum, N., & Park, S. M. (2024) · Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology · doi:10.1002/acn3.52096 · Cited by 3
“22 Considering practical constraints within the epidemiologic environment, we utilized validated prediction equations incorporating anthropometric measurements, serum creatinine levels, and lifestyle factors impacting obesity or muscle to estimate lean body mass index (LBMI), appen-dicular skeletal…”
MethodHilares, D. G., Vidal-Espinoza, R., Choque, C. D. L. T., Esquivel-Segura, H., Baquerizo-Serrano, L., Vidal-Fernandez, N., Gómez‐Campos, R., & Bolaños, M. C. (2024) · Nutrición clínica y dietética hospitalaria/Nutrición clínica, dietética hospitalaria · doi:10.12873/441garcia · Cited by 2
Hudda, M. T., van Niekerk, E., Sedumedi, C. M., Moeng-Mahlangu, L. T., Whincup, P. H., Reilly, J. J., Kruger, H. S., & Monyeki, M. A. (2025) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.70129 · Cited by 2
“These values are then used to estimate total body water and thereafter fat-free mass (using assumed percent hydration of fat-free mass) and FM. 4,6,27 In accordance with standard procedures, prior to the BIA assessment, each child participant was instructed to empty their bladder.”
Application of a Neural Network Classifier to Radiofrequency-Based Osteopenia/Osteoporosis Screening
Adams, J., Zhang, Z., Noetscher, G. M., Nazarian, A., & Makarov, S. N. (2021) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc46164.2021.9630944 · Cited by 2
“Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA mrem [6]; the surrounding soft tissues can introduce relevant measurement errors [7]; bone mineral density (BMD) measurements are affected by variations in bone size [8]; and cortical and trabecular bo…”
BackgroundSomatotypological features of men of working age – natives of the North
Averyanova, I. V. (2022) · Бюллетень Восточно-Сибирского научного центра Сибирского отделения Российской академии медицинских наук · doi:10.29413/abs.2022-7.2.12 · Cited by 2
The Measurement and Epidemiology of Child Obesity
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Does adult calcium intake influence body composition? A review
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Evaluation clinique de la dénutrition en pédiatrie
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Rosety-Rodríguez, M., Fornieles, G., Camacho‐Molina, A., Rosety, I., Díaz, A. J., Rosety, M. Á., Rodríguez-Pareja, A., & Ordóñez, F. J. (2013) · PubMed · doi:10.3305/nh.2013.28.5.6747 · Cited by 2
Current Methods of Human Body Composition Assessment
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“지금까지 정리해 본 다양한 체성분 분석방법들의 특성 및 장단점 들이 Table 2에 요약 정리 되어 있다.(33) 아직까지는 어떠한 방법도 장기”
Self-citationAssessment of Nutritional Status
Goodinson, S. M. (2020) · American Academy of PediatricsItasca, IL eBooks · doi:10.1542/9781610023610-24 · Cited by 2
The Assessment of the Adult Patient with Overweight and Obesity
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“DEXA is an increasingly important method for the evaluation of body composition [28-29].”
MethodImprovement of near infrared body fat sensing at 45-degree source-detector position angle
Mustafa, F. H., Jones, P. W., Huvanandana, J., & McEwan, A. L. (2016) · doi:10.1109/bme-hust.2016.7782089 · Cited by 2
Reproducibility of ultrasound methods of determining visceral adipose tissue amount
Bondarenko, V. M., & Пиманов, С. И. (2017) · Vestnik of Vitebsk State Medical University · doi:10.22263/2312-4156.2017.3.73 · Cited by 2
Caicedo-Eraso, J. C., González-Correa, C. H., González-Correa, C.-A., & Gallagher, D. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1272/1/012002 · Cited by 2
“Ideally, measurement of these changes should be assessed by accessible and accurate methods [5].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Lee, S. Y., & Gallagher, D.
- Affiliations
- Inje University (KR)
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gallagher, Dympna
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care
- Published
- 2008-09
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 566-572
- ISSN
- 1363-1950 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2741386
- OpenAlex
- W2044952536
- Cited by
- 694
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 53 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 2.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK072507, DK72507)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD042187, HD42187)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Body Composition Measurement Techniques
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Nutrition and Health in Aging
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › HIV-related health complications and treatments
- Keywords
- body composition, nutritional assessment, bioelectrical impedance analysis, dilution method, air displacement plethysmography, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, quantitative MRI, fat-free mass, bone mineral content, total body water, extracellular water, adipose tissue depots, visceral fat, subcutaneous adipose tissue, intermuscular fat, ectopic fat, skeletal muscle
- MeSH terms
- Body Composition, Diagnostic Imaging, Female, Humans, Male, Nutrition Assessment, Electric Impedance
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