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Cross-reactive serum and memory B cell responses to spike protein in SARS-CoV-2 and endemic coronavirus infection
Open accessPreprint — published as 10.1038/s41467-021-23074-3
Abstract
Pre-existing immune responses to seasonal endemic coronaviruses could have profound consequences for antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2, either induced in natural infection or through vaccination. Such consequences are well established in the influenza and flavivirus fields. A first step to establish whether pre-existing responses can impact SARS-CoV-2 infection is to understand the nature and extent of cross-reactivity in humans to coronaviruses. We compared serum antibody and memory B cell responses to coronavirus spike (S) proteins from pre-pandemic and SARS-CoV-2 convalescent donors using a series of binding and functional assays. We found weak evidence of pre-existing SARS-CoV-2 cross-reactive serum antibodies in pre-pandemic donors. However, we found stronger evidence of pre-existing cross-reactive memory B cells that were activated on SARS-CoV-2 infection. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) isolated from the donors showed varying degrees of cross-reactivity with betacoronaviruses, including SARS and endemic coronaviruses. None of the cross-reactive mAbs were neutralizing except for one that targeted the S2 subunit of the S protein. The results suggest that pre-existing immunity to endemic coronaviruses should be considered in evaluating antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2.
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“Neutralizing mAbs that bind regions of the viral spike have also been identified (24, 33, 38–42).”
From mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection (2021) · cites this paper as [41]
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Highly conserved Betacoronavirus sequences are broadly recognized by human T cells
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InfluentialPrimary ChAdOx1 vaccination does not reactivate pre-existing, cross-reactive immunity
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“The NTD in the S1 subunit or S2 subunit of SARSCoV-2 could likely serve as a potential target for nAb as well, but the mechanisms are unclear (18-21).”
Bhiman, J. N., & Moore, P. L. (2022) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/imr.13086 · Cited by 7
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“29 In addition, cross-reactive antibodies have also been shown to bind to the S2 of SARS-CoV-2, as well as other coronaviruses.”
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ACE2 engagement exposes the fusion peptide to pan-coronavirus neutralizing antibodiesPreprint
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“A neutralizing antibody specific to the S2 subunit with cross-reactivity to carious coronaviruses is recently identified (44).”
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“Our understanding of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in general, and the Ab response in particular, is based largely on studies of blood-derived samples from acute or convalescent patients with Covid-19.”
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“Domains within the Spike protein, such as the N-terminal domain of S1, as well as the S2 subunit, also harbor neutralizing epitopes [43, 44].”
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“Previous studies have shown that cross-reactive MBCs induced by endemic β-CoVs are activated and expanded following primary SARS-CoV-2 infection and mRNA vaccination (14, 15).”
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“A number of studies have shown that the pre-existing immunity significantly affects the Ab responses in the setting of infections/vaccinations that include influenza, 93,94 SARS-CoV-2, 95,96 Zika, 97 and yellow fever.”
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“Antibodies to spike protein are also likely due to cross-reactive responses to other pathogens such as, human coronaviruses (40).”
BackgroundHKU1 immune imprinting is associated with post-COVID symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection
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“Furthermore, discovery of cross-reactive mAbs has become a major focus of recent CoV research 52,53 .”
Self-citationMolecular basis of convergent evolution of ACE2 receptor utilization among HKU5 coronaviruses
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“We hypothesize that these rare antibodies may target conserved core RBD antigenic sites or conserved fusion machinery epitopes 59,60,62,87–90 .”
Dissecting the impact of somatic hypermutation on SARS-CoV-2 neutralization and viral escapePreprint
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“developed from cross-reactive HCoV-induced memory B-cells, as described 277 previously.(77,78) However, none of the wild-type or germline variant antibodies showed 278 any reactivity against OC43, HKU1, NL63, or 229E spike proteins, supporting 279 previous studies that found only little or no recall from memory HCoV r…”
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“Despite the weak evidence of pre-existing SARSCoV-2 cross-reactive serum antibodies in prepandemic donors [8,9], independent study groups have detected crossreactive pre-existing SARS-CoV-2 B cell memory cells in healthy individuals unexposed to SARS-CoV-2 [8−10].”
Evidence for a Potential Pre-Pandemic SARS-like Coronavirus Among Animals in North America
Hancock, T., Hickman, P., Kazerooni, N., Kennedy, M., Kania, S., Dennis, M., Szafranski, N., Gerhold, R., Su, C., Masi, T. J., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.12.17.473265 · Cited by 2
“6% prevalence of preexisting anti-RBD responses (46, 48, 49).”
BackgroundMeyer-Arndt, L., Braun, J., Fauchère, F., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.02.06.22270550 · Cited by 1
“IFNβ 7 7 [100 %] 42 [34-58] 11±6 [3-20] 102±44 [20-180]”
InfluentialElko, E., Nelson, G. A., Mead, H., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.01.24.22269542 · Cited by 1
“, 2021), and in some cases mapped to defined epitopes within S2 (Ladner et al., 2021; Pinto et al., 2021; Shrock et al., 2020; Song et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBroad human and animal coronavirus neutralisation by SARS-CoV-2 S2-targeted vaccinationPreprint
Ng, K. W., Faulkner, N., Finsterbusch, K., Wu, M., Harvey, R., Hussain, S., Greco, M., Liu, Y., Kjær, S., Swanton, C., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.11.30.470568 · Cited by 1
Structural mapping of antibody landscapes to human betacoronavirus spike proteins
Bangaru, S., Antanasijevic, A., Kose, N., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.09.30.462459 · Cited by 1
Self-citationZhang, Q., Chen, P., Guo, F., Zhou, R., Guo, R., Ge, X., Yang, Q., Xie, X., Xia, W., Fan, J., et al. (2026) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2026.08.009
Evaluating Spike Antigenicity across Endemic Human Coronavirus Models using Flow VirometryPreprint
Burnie, J., Ouano, C., Luo, V., Dzuvor, C. K. O., Miller, T., Ospina, G., Tanneti, N. S., Tan, L. H., Hamel, D. J., Hammond, C., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.05.28.728498
Federico, L., Odainic, A., Lund, K. P., et al. (2026) · bioRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.04.02.716054
Arunasalam, S., Muthugala, R., & Noordeen, F. (2025) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-025-12458-1 · Cited by 1
“Studies suggest that either by vaccination or natural infection based protective immunity against the SARS-CoV-2 might have increased cross protection against sCoVs [38, 39].”
Oluka, G. K., Katende, J. S., Kato, L., Ankunda, V., Sembera, J., Ejou, P., Odoch, G., Namuyanja, A., Kaleebu, P., & Serwanga, J. (2025) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.114351 · Cited by 1
“26,43,44,51 Our observation of CoronaVac’s dominant S2-IgG profile, likely driven by high baseline titers, aligns with pre-clinical murine findings demonstrating that prior coro-navirus exposure can imprint the immune system to preferentially boost conserved, subdominant regions such as S2.”
Yamaya, M., Watanabe, O., Kitai, Y., Sayama, Y., Ohmiya, S., & Nishimura, H. (2024) · Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.7883/yoken.jjid.2024.001
“The presence of antibodies targeting the spike protein and nucleoprotein of HCoV in serum has been reported (15,16).”
Mittal, N., Kumar, S., Rajmani, R. S., Singh, R., Lemoine, C., Jakob, V., Bj, S., Jagannath, N., Bhat, M., Chakraborty, D., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.03.19.533338
The Importance of Qualitative/Quantitative Analytical Tools in COVID-19 Vaccine Development
Seyfinejad, B., Molavi, O., & Jouyban, A. (2023) · ImmunoAnalysis · doi:10.34172/ia.2023.08
Verheul, M. K., Hendriks, M., de Melo, C. V. B., van Tol, S., Godeke, G.-J., van Binnendijk, R. S., Luytjes, W., Reusken, C. B. E. M., & van Beek, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Virology · doi:10.3389/fviro.2023.1171108 · Cited by 1
“Notably, crossreactive antibody responses have previously been identified between the two alphacoronaviruses hCoV-NL63 and hCoV-229E and between the two betacoronaviruses hCoV-OC43 and hCoVHKU1 (20, 34, 35).”
BackgroundHomologous and heterologous serological response to the N-terminal domain of SARS-CoV-2Preprint
Lv, H., Tsang, O., So, R. T. Y., Wang, Y.-Q., Yuan, M., Liu, H., Yip, G. K., Teo, Q., Lin, Y., Liang, W.-W., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.02.17.431722
Metadata
- Authors
- Song, G., He, W.-T., Callaghan, S., Anzanello, F., Huang, D., Ricketts, J., Torres, J. L., Beutler, N., Peng, L., Vargas, S., Cassell, J., Parren, M., Yang, L., Ignacio, C., Smith, D. M., Voss, J. E., Nemazee, D., Ward, A. B., Rogers, T., Burton, D. R., & Andrabi, R.
- Affiliations
- Scripps Research Institute (US)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Burton, Dennis R.
- Andrabi, Raiees
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Communications
- Publisher
- openRxiv
- Published
- 2020-09-23
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 2938-2938
- ISSN
- 2041-1723 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7523096
- OpenAlex
- W3161511556
- Cited by
- 285
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 7
- FWCI
- 19.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Communications (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1170236, UM1 AI44462)
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative
- National Institutes of Health (UM1 AI44462, COVID-19)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI132317, R01AI073148, R56AI073148)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › vaccines and immunoinformatics approaches
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, cross-reactive antibodies, memory B cells, spike protein, endemic coronaviruses, pre-existing immunity, SARS-CoV-1, betacoronaviruses, neutralizing antibodies, S2 subunit, monoclonal antibodies, antibody cross-reactivity, convalescent donors
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