Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals
Open accessAbstract
Understanding adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is important for vaccine development, interpreting coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pathogenesis, and calibration of pandemic control measures. Using HLA class I and II predicted peptide "megapools," circulating SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells were identified in ∼70% and 100% of COVID-19 convalescent patients, respectively. CD4+ T cell responses to spike, the main target of most vaccine efforts, were robust and correlated with the magnitude of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG and IgA titers. The M, spike, and N proteins each accounted for 11%-27% of the total CD4+ response, with additional responses commonly targeting nsp3, nsp4, ORF3a, and ORF8, among others. For CD8+ T cells, spike and M were recognized, with at least eight SARS-CoV-2 ORFs targeted. Importantly, we detected SARS-CoV-2-reactive CD4+ T cells in ∼40%-60% of unexposed individuals, suggesting cross-reactive T cell recognition between circulating "common cold" coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2.
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Lymphocytes from 20% to 50% of unexposed donors display significant reactivity to SARS-CoV-2 Ag peptide pools.
“lymphocytes from 20% to 50% of unexposed donors display significant reactivity to SARS-CoV-2 Ag peptide pools (Figure 6).”
From Guidelines for the use of flow cytometry and cell sorting in immunological studies (third edition) (2021) · cites this paper as [110]
The Results section on pre-existing cross-reactive T cells reports detectable non-spike CD4+ T-cell responses in 50% of unexposed donors. The Discussion gives the broader estimate as 40%–60%, not 20%–50%; the claim’s lower bound is unsupported. Our copy provides no page numbers for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThis cross-reactivity largely originates from previous exposure to circulating common cold coronaviruses.
“This cross-reactivity largely originates from previous exposure to circulating common cold coronaviruses [110-116].”
From Guidelines for the use of flow cytometry and cell sorting in immunological studies (third edition) (2021) · cites this paper as [110]
The Results section, “Pre-existing Cross-Reactive Coronavirus-Specific T Cells” (page unavailable), reports SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells in unexposed donors who were seropositive for two common-cold coronaviruses. The Discussion (page unavailable) says this may reflect some cross-reactive pre-existing immunity, but the study did not identify the cross-reactive peptides or establish their origin. It therefore does not support the stronger claim that cross-reactivity largely originates from prior common-cold coronavirus exposure. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredUsing HLA class I and II predicted peptide megapools, circulating SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells were identified in COVID-19 acute, mild and convalescent patients.
“Using HLA class I and II predicted peptide “megapools,” circulating SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells were identified in COVID-19 acute, mild and convalescent patients [110, 118-125].”
From Guidelines for the use of flow cytometry and cell sorting in immunological studies (third edition) (2021) · cites this paper as [110]
The Abstract and Results report using HLA class I and II peptide megapools to identify SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells in convalescent patients. The Results section on recovered patients says blood was collected after symptoms had resolved; although most participants had experienced mild illness, the paper does not report identifying these cells in patients during acute illness. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA recent study indicates SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses may be associated with better recovery from COVID-19.
“A recent study indicates SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses may be associated with better recovery from COVID-19 (57).”
From An <i>Alphavirus</i> -derived replicon RNA vaccine induces SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody and T cell responses in mice and nonhuman primates (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
The Results (CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell Responses; page unavailable) report SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses in recovered COVID-19 patients. The study did not compare patients with better and worse recovery, so it does not establish an association between those responses and better recovery. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredVirus-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, including memory CD8+ cells, persist in recovered COVID-19 patients, but their protective role against reinfection or severe disease is unclear.
“Virus-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, including CD8+ memory T cells, are present in patients who have recovered from COVID-19 (refs44,45), but their importance in protection against future infection and/or severe disease remain uncertain44,46–48.”
From Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
VAERD has generally not occurred when a Th1-biased CD4+ response, marked by increased IFNγ, IL-2, and TNF, is induced.
“By contrast, VAERD has not usually occurred if a TH1 cell-biased CD4+ T cell response is elicited, reflected by increased levels of interferon-γ (IFNγ), IL-2 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)44–46,49.”
From Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
Detection of cross-reactive T cells via the AIM assay was previously described.
“Detection of cross-reactive T cells via the AIM assay was previously described (7, 11, 72).”
From SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern partially escape humoral but not T cell responses in COVID-19 convalescent donors and vaccine recipients (2021) · cites this paper as [7]
CD8+ T cells are generally less tolerant of amino substitutions than CD4+ T cells.
“This effect is counterbalanced by CD8+ T cells being generally less tolerant of amino substitutions as compared to CD4+ T cells.”
From Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals (2021) · cites this paper as [47]
Some naive individuals had low pre-vaccination AIM+ T cell frequencies, possibly from cross-reactive cells generated by earlier seasonal coronavirus infection.
“some subjects did have low frequencies of pre-vaccination AIM+ T cells that may be attributed to cross-reactive cells from a prior seasonal coronavirus infection (Grifoni et al., 2020; Figure 1B).”
From Rapid induction of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells is associated with coordinated humoral and cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
T cell responses will contribute to control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly in re-infected convalescent patients.
“It should be noted that all plasma and sera tested completely inhibited entry at the lowest dilution tested and that T cell responses will contribute to control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly in re-infected convalescent patients (Grifoni et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020).”
From SARS-CoV-2 variants B.1.351 and P.1 escape from neutralizing antibodies (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
Humans make SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies, CD4+ T cells, and CD8+ T cells in response to infection.
“Humans make SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies, CD4+ T cells, and CD8+ T cells in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection (Grifoni et al., 2020; Krammer, 2020; Stephens and McElrath, 2020) (Figure 1).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
The presence of T cells and antibodies is associated with successful resolution of average COVID-19 cases.
“The presence of T cells and antibodies is associated with successful resolution of average cases of COVID-19 (Grifoni et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
The prevalence and magnitude of SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cell responses correlate with the expression level of each viral protein.
“The prevalence and magnitude of the SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cell responses correlates with the expression level of each SARS-CoV-2 protein (Grifoni et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
Circulating SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells are less consistently observed than CD4+ T cells.
“Overall, circulating SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells are less consistently observed than CD4+ T cells (Grifoni et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020; Sekine et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
T cell responses are detected after almost all SARS-CoV-2 infections.
“T cell responses are detected after almost all SARS-CoV-2 infections (Grifoni et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020; Sekine et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
Spike, M, and nucleocapsid are the most prominent targets of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells, with substantial responses also against ORF3a and nsp3.
“Spike, M, and nucleocapsid are the most prominent targets of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells (Grifoni et al., 2020), with substantial responses also against ORF3a and nsp3 (Le Bert et al., 2020; Grifoni et al., 2020; Nelde et al., 2021; Oja et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
The dominant cytokine produced by SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells from COVID-19 patients is IFNγ, with a Th1 signature including TNF and IL-2.
“The dominant cytokine produced by SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells from COVID-19 patients is IFNγ (Braun et al., 2020; Grifoni et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020; Weiskopf et al., 2020), with a clear IFNγ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), IL-2 protein signature of canonical Th1 cells (Braun et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020; Sekine et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells from patients consistently do not have Th2 characteristics.
“Last, there were initially great concerns about potential immune deviation to Th2 and immunopathogenesis (Peeples, 2020), but SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells from patients consistently do not have Th2 characteristics (Grifoni et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020; Sekine et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
IL-22 is robustly expressed by SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells.
“In contrast, IL-22, which can also be made by mucosal CD4+ T cells, appears to be robustly expressed by SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells (Grifoni et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020; Weiskopf et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
CD4+ T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 are more prominent than CD8+ T cell responses.
“CD4+ T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 are more prominent than CD8+ T cell responses (Grifoni et al., 2020; Sekine et al., 2020) and have been associated with control of primary SARS-CoV-2 infection (Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
In convalescent COVID-19 cases, CD4+ T cell responses were detected against almost all SARS-CoV-2 proteins (21/24), with undetectable responses only for the smallest proteins.
“In a study examining CD4+ T cell responses to all SARS-CoV-2 proteins in convalescent COVID-19 cases, responses were detected against almost all SARS-CoV-2 proteins (21/24) within the subject cohort, with CD4+ T cell responses only undetectable for the smallest of the proteins (Grifoni et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
Substantial cross-reactive T cell memory has been reported, measurable in approximately 28%-50% of people depending on the study.
“In contrast, substantial cross-reactive T cell memory has been reported, measurable in ∼28%–50% of people, depending on the study (Le Bert et al., 2020; Braun et al., 2020; Grifoni et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
There is an approximately 1,000-fold range in the magnitude of antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2, as well as heterogeneity in the magnitude of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.
“There is an ∼1,000-fold range in the magnitude of antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2, as well as heterogeneity in the magnitude of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cell and CD8+ T cell responses (Grifoni et al., 2020; Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
It is highly unlikely that SARS-CoV-2 mutations would escape T cell immunity.
“it is highly unlikely that SARS-CoV-2 mutations would escape T cell immunity”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
Spike is a good target for CD4+ T cell, Tfh cell, and CD8+ T cell responses in people infected with SARS-CoV-2.
“the findings that Spike is a good target for CD4+ T cell responses, Tfh cell responses, and CD8+ T cell responses in SARS-CoV-2-infected people”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Grifoni et al., 2020
SARS-CoV-2 infection elicits a Th1 CD4+ T cell response, with IFNγ and IL-2 as the main cytokines produced and some TNFα as well.
“SARS-CoV-2 infection elicits a Th1 CD4+ T cell response, with IFNγ and IL-2 being the primary cytokines produced by these cells and some TNFα production as well112,126-129.”
From SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 and the aging immune system (2021) · cites this paper as [127]
SARS-CoV-2 reactive CD4+ T cells are seen in up to 40-60% of unexposed individuals.
“SARS-CoV-2 reactive CD4+ T cells are seen in up to 40-60% of unexposed individuals127.”
From SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 and the aging immune system (2021) · cites this paper as [127]
Protection against SARS-CoV-2 depends on both humoral and T-cell-mediated immunity.
“As protection from SARS-CoV-2 relies on both humoral and T-cell-mediated immunity, 40 41”
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Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Grifoni, A., Weiskopf, D., Ramirez, S. I., Mateus, J., Dan, J. M., Moderbacher, C. R., Rawlings, S. A., Sutherland, A., Premkumar, L., Jadi, R. S., Marrama, D., de Silva, A. M., Frazier, A., Carlin, A. F., Greenbaum, J. A., Peters, B., Krammer, F., Smith, D. M., Crotty, S., & Sette, A.
- Affiliations
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology (US)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Corresponding author
- Crotty, Shane
- Sette, Alessandro
- ORCID
- Grifoni, Alba
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Ramirez, Sydney I.
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Moderbacher, Carolyn Rydyznski
- Rawlings, Stephen A.
- Sutherland, Aaron
- Premkumar, Lakshmanane
- Jadi, Ramesh S.
- Marrama, Daniel
- Frazier, April
- Carlin, Aaron F.
- Greenbaum, Jason A.
- Peters, Bjoern
- Krammer, Florian
- Smith, Davey M.
- Crotty, Shane
- Sette, Alessandro
- Venue
- Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-06
- Volume
- 181
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1489-1501.e15
- ISSN
- 0092-8674 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7237901
- OpenAlex
- W3025320502
- Cited by
- 3,595
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 96 · 2025: 182 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 439 · 2022: 758 · 2021: 1166 · 2020: 677 · 2018: 1 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 100.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- University of California, San Diego (AI007384, AI007036)
- National Institutes of Health (AI007036, AI007384, U19 AI118626, 75N9301900065)
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI42742, AI135078)
- Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación
- Pontificia Universidad Javeriana
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › vaccines and immunoinformatics approaches
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, T cell response, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, adaptive immunity, spike protein, M protein, non-structural proteins, cross-reactive T cells, common cold coronaviruses, convalescent patients, vaccine development
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 Vaccines, Convalescence, Cross Reactions, Humans, Leukocytes, Mononuclear, Pneumonia, Viral, Viral Proteins, Viral Vaccines, CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Coronavirus Infections, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte, Pandemics, Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
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