AlphaFold Prediction of Structural Ensembles of Disordered Proteins
Open accessPreprint — published as 10.1038/s41467-025-56572-9 · Paper page
Abstract
Deep learning methods of predicting protein structures have reached an accuracy comparable to that of high-resolution experimental methods. It is thus possible to generate accurate models of the native states of hundreds of millions of proteins. An open question, however, concerns whether these advances can be translated to disordered proteins, which should be represented as structural ensembles because of their heterogeneous and dynamical nature. Here we show that the inter-residue distances predicted by AlphaFold for disordered proteins can be used to construct accurate structural ensembles. These results illustrate the application to disordered proteins of deep learning methods originally trained for predicting the structures of folded proteins.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold
Jumper, J., Evans, R., Pritzel, A., Green, T., Figurnov, M., Ronneberger, O., Tunyasuvunakool, K., Bates, R., Žídek, A., Potapenko, A., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03819-2 · Cited by 43,764 · see citing works
The Amyloid Hypothesis of Alzheimer’s Disease: Progress and Problems on the Road to Therapeutics
Hardy, J., & Selkoe, D. J. (2002) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1072994 · Cited by 13,864 · see citing works
ColabFold - Making protein folding accessible to all
Mirdita, M., Schütze, K., Moriwaki, Y., Heo, L., Ovchinnikov, S., & Steinegger, M. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.08.15.456425 · Cited by 9,391 · see citing works
Spillantini, M. G., Schmidt, M. L., Lee, V. M.-Y., Trojanowski, J. Q., Jakes, R., & Goedert, M. (1997) · Nature · doi:10.1038/42166 · Cited by 8,382 · see citing works
Accurate prediction of protein structures and interactions using a 3-track network
Baek, M., DiMaio, F., Anishchenko, I., Dauparas, J., Ovchinnikov, S., Lee, G. R., Wang, J., Cong, Q., Kinch, L. N., Schaeffer, R. D., et al. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.06.14.448402 · Cited by 5,542 · see citing works
MMseqs2 enables sensitive protein sequence searching for the analysis of massive data sets
Steinegger, M., & Söding, J. (2017) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt.3988 · Cited by 4,840 · see citing works
The Amyloid-β Pathway in Alzheimer’s Disease
Hampel, H., Hardy, J., Blennow, K., Chen, C., Perry, G., Kim, S. H., Villemagne, V. L., Aisen, P., Vendruscolo, M., Iwatsubo, T., et al. (2021) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01249-0 · Cited by 1,952 · see citing works
Self-citationUniRef clusters: a comprehensive and scalable alternative for improving sequence similarity searches
Suzek, B. E., Wang, Y., Huang, H., McGarvey, P. B., Wu, C. H., & the UniProt Consortium (2015) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btu739 · Cited by 1,928 · see citing works
Martini 3: A general purpose force field for coarse-grained molecular dynamics
Souza, P. C. T., Alessandri, R., Barnoud, J., Thallmair, S., Faustino, I., Grünewald, F., Patmanidis, I., Abdizadeh, H., Bruininks, B. M. H., Wassenaar, T. A., et al. (2021) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-021-01098-3 · Cited by 1,551 · see citing works
Improved prediction of protein-protein interactions using AlphaFold2
Bryant, P., Pozzati, G., & Elofsson, A. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.09.15.460468 · Cited by 1,025 · see citing works
Burley, S. K., Bhikadiya, C., Bi, C., Bittrich, S., Chao, H., Chen, L., Craig, P., Crichlow, G. V., Dalenberg, K., Duarte, J. M., et al. (2022) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkac1077 · Cited by 903 · see citing works
AlphaFold and Implications for Intrinsically Disordered Proteins
Ruff, K. M., & Pappu, R. V. (2021) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167208 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
Sampling alternative conformational states of transporters and receptors with AlphaFold2
del Alamo, D., Sala, D., Mchaourab, H. S., & Meiler, J. (2022) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.75751 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Joseph, J. A., Reinhardt, A., Aguirre, A., Chew, P.-Y., Russell, K. O., Espinosa, J. R., Garaizar, A., & Collepardo-Guevara, R. (2021) · Nature Computational Science · doi:10.1038/s43588-021-00155-3 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Principles of protein structural ensemble determination
Bonomi, M., Heller, G. T., Camilloni, C., & Vendruscolo, M. (2017) · Current Opinion in Structural Biology · doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2016.12.004 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Self-citationBiophysical experiments and biomolecular simulations: A perfect match?
Bottaro, S., & Lindorff‐Larsen, K. (2018) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aat4010 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
SPEACH_AF: Sampling protein ensembles and conformational heterogeneity with Alphafold2
Stein, R. A., & Mchaourab, H. S. (2022) · PLOS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010483 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
AlphaFold2 models indicate that protein sequence determines both structure and dynamics
Guo, H.-B., Perminov, A., Bekele, S., Kedziora, G., Farajollahi, S., Varaljay, V., Hinkle, K., Molinero, V., Meister, K., Hung, C., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-14382-9 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Metainference: A Bayesian inference method for heterogeneous systems
Bonomi, M., Camilloni, C., Cavalli, A., & Vendruscolo, M. (2016) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501177 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Self-citationMulti‐state modeling of G‐protein coupled receptors at experimental accuracy
Heo, L., & Feig, M. (2022) · Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics · doi:10.1002/prot.26382 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Bottaro, S., Bengtsen, T., & Lindorff‐Larsen, K. (2020) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-0270-6_15 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
PED in 2021: a major update of the protein ensemble database for intrinsically disordered proteins
Lazar, T., Martínez-Pérez, E., Quaglia, F., Hatos, A., Chemes, L. B., Iserte, J. A., Méndez, N. A., Garrone, N. A., Saldaño, T. E., Marchetti, J., et al. (2021) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkaa1021 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Molecular Basis of Small-Molecule Binding to α-Synuclein
Robustelli, P., de Opakua, A. I., Campbell-Bezat, C. K., Giordanetto, F., Becker, S., Zweckstetter, M., Pan, A. C., & Shaw, D. E. (2022) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.1c07591 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Protein structure prediction has reached the single-structure frontier
Lane, T. J. (2023) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-022-01760-4 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Efficient Ensemble Refinement by Reweighting
Köfinger, J., Stelzl, L. S., Reuter, K., Allande, C., Reichel, K., & Hummer, G. (2019) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.8b01231 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Lindorff-Larsen, K., & Kragelund, B. B. (2021) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167196 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Determination of Structural Ensembles of Proteins: Restraining vs Reweighting
Rangan, R., Bonomi, M., Heller, G. T., Cesari, A., Bussi, G., & Vendruscolo, M. (2018) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.8b00738 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationLöhr, T., Jussupow, A., & Camilloni, C. (2017) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.4981211 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Robertson, A. J., Courtney, J. M., Shen, Y., Ying, J., & Bax, A. (2021) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.1c10588 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
A kinetic ensemble of the Alzheimer’s Aβ peptide
Löhr, T., Kohlhoff, K., Heller, G. T., Camilloni, C., & Vendruscolo, M. (2021) · Nature Computational Science · doi:10.1038/s43588-020-00003-w · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationStructural ensembles of disordered proteins from hierarchical chain growth and simulation
Pietrek, L. M., Stelzl, L. S., & Hummer, G. (2022) · Current Opinion in Structural Biology · doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2022.102501 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Prediction of Intrinsic Disorder Using Rosetta ResidueDisorder and AlphaFold2
He, J., Turzo, S. B. A., Seffernick, J. T., Kim, S. S., & Lindert, S. (2022) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c05508 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Conformational ensembles of the human intrinsically disordered proteome
Tesei, G., Trolle, A. I., Jonsson, N., Betz, J., Knudsen, F. E., Pesce, F., Johansson, K. E., & Lindorff‐Larsen, K. (2024) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-023-07004-5 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Systematic identification of conditionally folded intrinsically disordered regions by AlphaFold2
Alderson, T. R., Pritišanac, I., Kolarić, Đ., Moses, A. M., & Forman-Kay, J. D. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2304302120 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Machine Learning-Guided Protein Engineering
Kouba, P., Kohout, P., Haddadi, F., Bushuiev, A., Samusevich, R., Sedlář, J., Damborský, J., Pluskal, T., Šivic, J., & Mazurenko, S. (2023) · ACS Catalysis · doi:10.1021/acscatal.3c02743 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Protein structure generation via folding diffusion
Wu, K., Yang, K., van den Berg, R., Alamdari, S., Zou, J., Lu, A. X., & Amini, A. P. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-45051-2 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
AlphaFold prediction of structural ensembles of disordered proteins
Brotzakis, Z. F., Zhang, S., Murtada, M. H., & Vendruscolo, M. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-56572-9 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationDeep learning for protein structure prediction and design—progress and applications
Jänes, J., & Beltrão, P. (2024) · Molecular Systems Biology · doi:10.1038/s44320-024-00016-x · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Brown, B. P., Stein, R. A., Meiler, J., & Mchaourab, H. S. (2024) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.3c01081 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
PLUMED Tutorials: A collaborative, community-driven learning ecosystem
Tribello, G. A., Bonomi, M., Bussi, G., Camilloni, C., Armstrong, B., Arsiccio, A., Aureli, S., Ballabio, F., Bernetti, M., Bonati, L., et al. (2025) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0251501 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationBrotzakis, Z. F., Löhr, T., Truong, S. D., Hoff, S., Bonomi, M., & Vendruscolo, M. (2023) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.3c00010 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationRandom, de novo, and conserved proteins: How structure and disorder predictors perform differently
Middendorf, L., & Eicholt, L. A. (2024) · Proteins Structure Function and Bioinformatics · doi:10.1002/prot.26652 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Use of AI-methods over MD simulations in the sampling of conformational ensembles in IDPs
Sil, S., Datta, I., & Basu, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences · doi:10.3389/fmolb.2025.1542267 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Aupič, J., Pokorná, P., Ruthstein, S., & Magistrato, A. (2024) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c01544 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Disrupting Dimeric β-Amyloid by Electric Fields
Vargas-Rosales, P. A., D’Addio, A., Zhang, Y., & Caflisch, A. (2023) · ACS Physical Chemistry Au · doi:10.1021/acsphyschemau.3c00021 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bonds and bytes: The odyssey of structural biology
Hoff, S., Zinke, M. C., Izadi‐Pruneyre, N., & Bonomi, M. (2023) · Current Opinion in Structural Biology · doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2023.102746 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Evans, J. R., Gustavsson, E. K., Doykov, I., Murphy, D. P., Virdi, G. S., Lachica, J., Röntgen, A., Murtada, M. H., Pang, C. W., Macpherson, H. L., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.05.30.596437 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationAlphaFold2-based prediction of the co-condensation propensity of proteins
Zhang, S., Lim, C. M., Occhetta, M., & Vendruscolo, M. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2315005121 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationSequence-based drug design using transformersPreprint
Zhang, S., Huo, D., Horne, R. I., Qi, Y., Ojeda, S. P., Yan, A., & Vendruscolo, M. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.11.27.568880 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationNajafi, N. N., Karbassian, R., Hajihassani, H., & Irani, M. A. (2025) · Journal of Molecular Modeling · doi:10.1007/s00894-025-06392-x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sequence-Based Drug Design Using TransformersPreprint
Vendruscolo, M., Zhang, S., Huo, D., Horne, R. I., Qi, Y., Ojeda, S. P., & Yan, A. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3682847/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAlphaFold-Metainference: Prediction of Structural Ensembles of Disordered ProteinsPreprint
Brotzakis, Z. F., Zhang, S., Murtada, M. H., & Vendruscolo, M. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.11.09.622758
Self-citation
- Authors
- Brotzakis, Z. F., Zhang, S., & Vendruscolo, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Vendruscolo, Michele
- Venue
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)
- Publisher
- openRxiv
- Published
- 2023-01-19
- OpenAlex
- W4317493265
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- UK Research and Innovation (10061100, 10059436)
- Bodossaki Foundation
- HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme (101 087 471)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Protein Structure and Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Enzyme Structure and Function
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Machine Learning in Bioinformatics
- Keywords
- AlphaFold, intrinsically disordered proteins, structural ensembles, protein structure prediction, deep learning, protein dynamics, ensemble construction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review