Exposure to Online Hate among Young Social Media Users

Aspects of perpetration that refer to a person-centered basis of hate speech behavior-such as prejudice, bias, a devaluating attitude, hatred, or, most often, the purpose, aim or intention to harm-were mentioned in nine definitions.

“Aspects of perpetration that refer to a person-centered basis of hate speech behavior—such as prejudice, bias, a devaluating attitude, hatred, or, most often, the purpose, aim or intention to harm—were mentioned in nine definitions (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Vaught, 2012; Wachs et al., 2019, 2020, 2021a).”

Oksanen et al. (2014) and Räsänen et al. (2016) stood out as their items addressed more target groups than other studies.

“Oksanen et al. (2014) and Räsänen et al. (2016) stood out as their items addressed more target groups than other studies.”

Six quantitative studies, related to 13 publications, used items that reflected specific verbal and nonverbal forms of hate speech.

“Six quantitative studies, related to 13 publications, used items that reflected specific verbal and nonverbal forms of hate speech, such as messages, comments, words, graffiti, memes etc. (exceptions: Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Soral et al., 2018; Tynes, 2005; Vaught, 2012).”

The prevalence of hate speech was generally studied and reported in online contexts.

“The prevalence of hate speech was generally studied and reported in online contexts (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Tynes, 2005; Wachs et al., 2019b, 2019a, 2020, 2021a, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019, 2020).”

Prevalences based on specific hate-speech characteristics were reported only in six publications.

“Prevalences based on specific hate-speech characteristics were reported only in six publications, namely: forms (Wachs et al., 2021a); locations (Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Tynes, 2005); targets (Elpus & Carter, 2016; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Tynes, 2005); and perpetrators of hate material (Blaya & Audrin, 2019).”

Only two studies, related to four publications, assessed whether online hate posts were searched for deliberately or not.

“Only two studies, related to four publications, assessed whether online hate posts were searched for deliberately or not (Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Blaya et al., 2020; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016).”

Four studies, related to ten publications, reported frequencies of online hate speech perpetration.

“Four studies, related to ten publications, reported frequencies of online hate speech perpetration (Blaya et al., 2020; Blaya & Audrin, 2019; Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; Wachs et al., 2019b, 2019a, 2021a, Wachs & Wright, 2018, 2019, 2020).”

Two of these publications mentioned bullying without providing a detailed explanation of that overlap.

“Two of these publications mentioned bullying without providing a detailed explanation of that overlap (Elpus & Carter, 2016; Oksanen et al., 2014).”

Four publications explicitly cited intentions, attitudes, or emotions in their descriptive features of hate speech.

“Four publications (Oksanen et al., 2014; Räsänen et al., 2016; van Dorn, 2004; Wachs et al., 2019) explicitly cited intentions, attitudes, or emotions in their descriptive features of hate speech.”