Psychosocial Risk Factors Associated With Cyberbullying Among Adolescents: A Population-Based Study
Abstract
CONTEXT: To our knowledge, no population study examining psychosocial and psychiatric risk factors associated with cyberbullying among adolescents exists. OBJECTIVE: To study cross-sectional associations between cyberbullying and psychiatric and psychosomatic problems among adolescents. DESIGN: Population-based cross-sectional study. SETTING: Finland. PARTICIPANTS: The sample consists of 2215 Finnish adolescents aged 13 to 16 years with complete information about cyberbullying and cybervictimization. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reports of cyberbullying and cybervictimization during the past 6 months. RESULTS: In the total sample, 4.8% were cybervictims only, 7.4% were cyberbullies only, and 5.4% were cyberbully-victims. Cybervictim-only status was associated with living in a family with other than 2 biological parents, perceived difficulties, emotional and peer problems, headache, recurrent abdominal pain, sleeping difficulties, and not feeling safe at school. Cyberbully-only status was associated with perceived difficulties, hyperactivity, conduct problems, low prosocial behavior, frequent smoking and drunkenness, headache, and not feeling safe at school. Cyberbully-victim status was associated with all of these risk factors. Among cybervictims, being cyberbullied by a same-sex or opposite-sex adult, by an unknown person, and by a group of people were associated with fear for safety, indicating possible trauma. CONCLUSIONS: Both cyberbullying and cybervictimization are associated with psychiatric and psychosomatic problems. The most troubled are those who are both cyberbullies and cybervictims. This indicates the need for new strategies for cyberbullying prevention and intervention.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Cyberbullying can lead to a diverse range of effects.
“Considering that being a victim of cyberbullying is usually the result of a combination of risk factors rather than one individual factor and that cyberbullying can lead to a diverse range of effects80, it is pertinent to combine the various meta-analyses and gain a holistic understanding of the interconnectedness between the risks and outcomes of cyberbullying victimization.”
From Umbrella review of meta-analyses on the risk factors, protective factors, consequences and interventions of cyberbullying victimization (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
Being a victim of cyberbullying is usually the result of a combination of risk factors rather than one individual factor.
“Considering that being a victim of cyberbullying is usually the result of a combination of risk factors rather than one individual factor and that cyberbullying can lead to a diverse range of effects80, it is pertinent to combine the various meta-analyses and gain a holistic understanding of the interconnectedness between the risks and outcomes of cyberbullying victimization.”
From Umbrella review of meta-analyses on the risk factors, protective factors, consequences and interventions of cyberbullying victimization (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
Cites
The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note
Goodman, R. (1997) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x · Cited by 14,908 · see citing works
Bullying at school: what we know and what we can do
(1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-1080 · Cited by 4,755 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x · Cited by 3,639 · see citing works
Applied Survival Analysis: Regression Modeling of Time-to-Event Data
Hosmer, D. W., Lemeshow, S. A., & May, S. J. (2008) · Cited by 3,030 · see citing works
Hawker, D. S. J., & Boulton, M. J. (2000) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00629 · Cited by 2,694 · see citing works
Goodman, R. (1999) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00494 · Cited by 1,760 · see citing works
Online aggressor/targets, aggressors, and targets: a comparison of associated youth characteristics
Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00328.x · Cited by 1,313 · see citing works
Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents.
Raskauskas, J., & Stoltz, A. D. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.564 · Cited by 1,017 · see citing works
Bullying at School - What We Know and What We Can Do
Awiria, O. A., Olweus, D., & Byrne, B. J. (1994) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3121681 · Cited by 935 · see citing works
Bullying at school—an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders
Kaltiala‐Heino, R., Rimpelä, M., Rantanen, P., & Rimpelä, A. (2000) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1006/jado.2000.0351 · Cited by 916 · see citing works
Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008) · Cited by 881 · see citing works
Applied Survival Analysis: Regression Modeling of Time to Event Data
Rao, P., Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. A. (2000) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2669422 · Cited by 876 · see citing works
Association Between Bullying and Psychosomatic Problems: A Meta-analysis
Gini, G., & Pozzoli, T. (2009) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1215 · Cited by 834 · see citing works
Nansel, T. R., Craig, W., Overpeck, M. D., Saluja, G., & Ruan, W. J. (2004) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.8.730 · Cited by 816 · see citing works
Craig, W. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00145-1 · Cited by 770 · see citing works
Due, P., Holstein, B. E., Lynch, J. W., Diderichsen, F., Gabhainn, S. N., Scheidt, P. C., & Currie, C. E. (2005) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/cki105 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
Fekkes, M., Pijpers, F., Fredriks, A., Vogels, T., & Verloove-vanhorick, S. (2006) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0187 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Arseneault, L., Walsh, E., Trzesniewski, K. H., Newcombe, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2005-2388 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., Wolak, J., & David Finkelhor, B. (2006) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0815 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Relationships Between Bullying and Violence Among US Youth
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M. D., Haynie, D. L., Ruan, W. J., & Scheidt, P. C. (2003) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpedi.157.4.348 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Klomek, A. B., Sourander, A., Niemelä, S., Kumpulainen, K., Piha, J., Tamminen, T., Almqvist, F., & Gould, M. S. (2009) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318196b91f · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociation of common health symptoms with bullying in primary school children
Williams, K., Chambers, M., Logan, S., & Robinson, D. (1996) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.313.7048.17 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Ybarra, M. L. (2004) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493104323024500 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Online victimization: A report on the nation’s youth.
Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K. J., & Wolak, J. (2000) · University of New Hampshire Scholars Repository (University of New Hampshire at Manchester) · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Sourander, A., Jensen, P., Rönning, J. A., Niemelä, S., Helenius, H., Sillanmäki, L., Kumpulainen, K., Piha, J., Tamminen, T., Moilanen, I., et al. (2007) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2704 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Kumpulainen, K., & Räsänen, E. (2000) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00210-6 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
School Bullying and Youth Violence
Kim, Y. S., LEVENTHAL, B. L., Koh, Y., Hubbard, A., & Boyce, W. T. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.9.1035 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Peer victimisation at school and the health of secondary school students
Rigby, K. (1999) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709999157590 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Childhood bullying as a risk for later depression and suicidal ideation among Finnish males
Klomek, A. B., Sourander, A., Kumpulainen, K., Piha, J., Tamminen, T., Moilanen, I. K., Almqvist, F., & Gould, M. S. (2008) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.12.226 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Self-citationChildhood Bullies and Victims and Their Risk of Criminality in Late Adolescence
Sourander, A., Jensen, P. S., Rønning, J. A., Elonheimo, H., Niemelä, S., Helenius, H. Y. M., Kumpulainen, K., Piha, J., Tamminen, T., Moilanen, I. K., et al. (2007) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpedi.161.6.546 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-reported strengths and difficulties in a community sample of Finnish adolescents
Koskelainen, M., Sourander, A., & Vauras, M. (2001) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s007870170024 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationChildhood Bullying Behavior and Later Psychiatric Hospital and Psychopharmacologic Treatment
Sourander, A., Rønning, J. A., Klomek, A. B., Gyllenberg, D., Kumpulainen, K., Niemelä, S., Helenius, H. Y. M., Sillanmäki, L. H., Ristkari, T., Tamminen, T., et al. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.122 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationOlweus, D. (1994) · Promotion & Education · doi:10.1177/102538239400100414 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Rønning, J. A., Sourander, A., Kumpulainen, K., Tamminen, T., Niemelä, S., Moilanen, I. K., Helenius, H. Y. M., Piha, J., & Almqvist, F. (2008) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-008-0395-0 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035618 · Cited by 3,266 · see citing works
Moore, S. E., Norman, R. E., Suetani, S., Thomas, H. J., Sly, P. D., & Scott, J. G. (2017) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60 · Cited by 1,320 · see citing works
Psychological, Physical, and Academic Correlates of Cyberbullying and Traditional Bullying
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.018 · Cited by 1,295 · see citing works
Current perspectives: the impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health
Nixon, C. (2014) · Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics · doi:10.2147/ahmt.s36456 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Internet Research in Psychology
Gosling, S. D., & Mason, W. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015321 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Cyberbullying: Review of an Old Problem Gone Viral
Aboujaoude, E., Savage, M. W., Starcevic, V., & Salame, W. O. (2015) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.011 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Hamm, M. P., Newton, A. S., Chisholm, A., Shulhan, J., Milne, A., Sundar, P., Ennis, H., Scott, S. D., & Hartling, L. (2015) · JAMA Pediatrics · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0944 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Cyberbullying and adolescent mental health: systematic review.
Bottino, S. M. B., Bottino, C. M. C., Regina, C. G., Correia, A. V. L., & Ribeiro, W. S. (2015) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311x00036114 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
A meta‐analysis of sex differences in cyber‐bullying behavior: The moderating role of age
Barlett, C., & Coyne, S. M. (2014) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21555 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Gaffney, H., Farrington, D. P., Espelage, D. L., & Ttofi, M. M. (2019) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.002 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Cassidy, W., Faucher, C., & Jackson, M. (2013) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034313479697 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Selkie, E. M., Fales, J. L., & Moreno, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.026 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
A META-ANALYSIS OF THE PREDICTORS OF CYBERBULLYING PERPETRATION AND VICTIMIZATION
Guo, S. (2016) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21914 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Cyberbullying and children and young people’s mental health: A systematic map of systematic reviews
Kwan, I., Dickson, K., Richardson, M., MacDowall, W., Burchett, H., Stansfield, C., Brunton, G., Sutcliffe, K., & Thomas, J. (2020) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0370 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Baldry, A. C., Farrington, D. P., & Sorrentino, A. (2015) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.014 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Campbell, M. A., Slee, P. T., Spears, B., Butler, D., & Kift, S. (2013) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034313479698 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Cyberbullying and subjective health
Låftman, S. B., Modin, B., & Östberg, V. (2013) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.10.020 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
An international systematic review of cyberbullying measurements
Chun, J., Lee, J., Kim, J., & Lee, S. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106485 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Wang, M.-J., Yogeeswaran, K., Andrews, N. P., Hawi, D. R., & Sibley, C. G. (2019) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0146 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Cyberbullying among adolescents: Measures in search of a construct.
Mehari, K. R., Farrell, A. D., & Le, A.-T. H. (2014) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0037521 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Kasturiratna, K. T. A. S., Hartanto, A., Chen, C. H. Y., Tong, E. M. W., & Majeed, N. M. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-02011-6 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Helweg‐Larsen, K., Schütt, N., & Larsen, H. B. (2012) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02587.x · Cited by 109 · see citing works
A review of cyberbullying and suggestions for online psychological therapy
Foody, M., Samara, M., & Carlbring, P. (2015) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2015.05.002 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Other studies have reported similar rates for both genders, but have concluded that girls weremore likely to report being cyber victims (Cappadocia et al., 2013; Låftman et al., 2013; Sourander et al., 2010).”
ResultCyberbullying, cyber aggression and their impact on the victim – The teacher
Kopecký, K., & Szotkowski, R. (2017) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2016.08.014 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Hemphill, S. A., Tollit, M., Kotevski, A., & Heerde, J. A. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260514553636 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Foody, M., McGuire, L., Kuldas, S., & O’Higgins Norman, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01723 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
A multi-platform dataset for detecting cyberbullying in social media
Van Bruwaene, D., Huang, Q., & Inkpen, D. (2020) · Language Resources and Evaluation · doi:10.1007/s10579-020-09488-3 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Gül, H., Fırat, S., Sertçelik, M., Gül, A., Gürel, Y., & Kılıç, B. G. (2019) · Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1080/24750573.2018.1472923 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Keipi, T., & Oksanen, A. (2014) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2014.881988 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Straker, L., Harris, C., Joosten, J., & Howie, E. K. (2018) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2017.1401671 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Wang, X., Qiao, Y., Li, W., & Dong, W. (2022) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316211064515 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Development and validation of the multidimensional offline and online peer victimization scale
Sumter, S. R., Valkenburg, P. M., Baumgartner, S. E., Peter, J., & van der Hof, S. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.042 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Nwosu, K. C., Ikwuka, O. I., Ugorji, O. M., & Unachukwu, G. C. (2020) · Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology · doi:10.21432/cjlt27890 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
To tell or not to tell? Youth’s responses to unwanted Internet experiences
Priebe, G., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2013) · Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2013-1-6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Cyberbullying and Other Risks of Internet Communication Focused on University Students
Kopecký, K. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1163 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Online sexual harassment and negative mood in Croatian female adolescents
Mitchell, K., & Štulhofer, A. (2021) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01506-7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Zhan, J., Yang, Y., & Lian, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.995937 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Happiness and depression in the traditionally bullied and cyberbullied 12-year-old
Uusitalo-Malmivaara, L., & Lehto, J. E. (2016) · Open Review of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/23265507.2016.1155168 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Optimizing Deep Learning for Detection Cyberbullying Text in Indonesian Language
Anindyati, L., Purwarianti, A., & Nursanti, A. (2019) · 2019 International Conference of Advanced Informatics: Concepts, Theory and Applications (ICAICTA) · doi:10.1109/icaicta.2019.8904108 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Heiman, T., Olenik-Shemesh, D., & Frank, G. (2019) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/0886-6708.34.1.28 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Cybercrime in Developing Countries: Negative Effects and Panacea
Ugah, J. O., Sunday, O., Obidinma, A., & Ene, O. S. (2025) · OALib · doi:10.4236/oalib.1113218 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sourander, A., Brunstein Klomek, A., Ikonen, M., Lindroos, J., Luntamo, T., Koskelainen, M., Ristkari, T., & Helenius, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Turku (FI)
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2010-07-01
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 720
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2059448124
- Cited by
- 733
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 60 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 35.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Workplace Violence and Bullying
- Keywords
- cyberbullying, cyber victimization, adolescents, psychosocial risk factors, mental illness, psychosomatic disorders, headache, recurrent abdominal pain, sleep disorders, conduct problems, hyperactivity, prosocial behavior, substance use, perceived difficulty, school safety, cyberbullying prevention
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Adult, Mental Disorders, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Finland, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Psychophysiologic Disorders, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Schools, Social Behavior, Students, Crime Victims, Substance-Related Disorders, Internet
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
