Artificial Intelligence as an Effective Classroom Assistant
Abstract
The field of artificial intelligence in education (AIED) uses techniques from AI and cognitive science to better understand the nature of learning and teaching and to build systems to help learners gain new skills or understand new concepts. This article studies metareviews and meta-analyses to make the case for blended learning, wherein the teacher can offload some work to AIED systems.
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AI tutors in CA form can outperform human tutors.
“Thus, many of them have been recognized both in academia or practice [19, 23] for proving that AI tutors in CA form can outperform human tutors through meta-analysis [28].”
From The Promise and Peril of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Design Implications (2024) · cites this paper as [19]
Prior conversational agents (CAs) were developed for specific goals by researchers with domain knowledge to teach particular subjects or topics.
“First, the CAs were developed for specific goals by researchers with great domain knowledge in education to teach particular subjects (e.g., mathematics, science, language, etc.) [23] or topics (e.g., explaining knowledge as a museum curator) [19].”
From The Promise and Peril of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Design Implications (2024) · cites this paper as [19]
Students are enthusiastic about ChatGPT's great availability and capability.
“students are enthusiastic about ChatGPT's great availability and capability.”
From The Promise and Peril of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Design Implications (2024) · cites this paper as [19]
Multiple meta-analyses suggest that students learn better with AI tutors than with human tutors.
“Multiple meta-analyses have already suggested that students learn better with AI tutors than with human tutors [19]”
From The Promise and Peril of ChatGPT in Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Design Implications (2024) · cites this paper as [19]
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“Innovative technologies are employed by universities and students for instructional purposes (Du Boulay, 2016; Nikpour et al., 2023).”
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“…field of medicine (Yu et al., 2018; Lopez-Jimenz et al., 2020; Hamet & Tremblay, 2017; Zhuo et al., 2020; Xu et al.,2021), human biology (Hamet & Temblay, 2017), nutrition (Sak & Suchodolska, 2021), and education (Chen et al., 2020; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019; Boulay, 2016; Zafari et al., 2022).”
Artificial Intelligence in Education and Ethics
du Boulay, B. (2022) · Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-0351-9_6-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Kosmas, P., Nisiforou, E. A., Kounnapi, E., Sofocleous, S., & Theofanous, G. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10492-z · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“The use of AI in the classroom can motivate students, increase their engagement in the learning process and offer innovative interactive experiences that make the learning experience fun and enjoyable (Du Boulay, 2016).”
A Vision of Teaching and Learning with AI
Lameras, P. (2022) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon52537.2022.9766718 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Measurement of Attitude in Language Learning with AI (MALL:AI)
Yıldız, T. A. (2023) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.23.62.10.4 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Connecting the Dots Towards Collaborative AIED: Linking Group Makeup to Process to Learning
Stewart, A., & D’Mello, S. K. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93843-1_40 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Standardization of Artificial Intelligence for the Development and Use of Intelligent Systems
Russia, E. B. (2020) · Advances in Wireless Communications and Networks · doi:10.11648/j.awcn.20200601.11 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“At this stage, artificial intelligence technology is developing rapidly [2-26].”
BackgroundSuchánek, P., & Kŕaĺová, M. (2025) · Journal of Innovation & Knowledge · doi:10.1016/j.jik.2025.100781 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Santos, O. C., & Corbí, A. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2957947 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“should be applied, as they have been proven useful to model cognitive [46], affective [47] and psychomotor [34] aspects.”
MethodGenerative Artificial Intelligence Preparedness and Technological Competence
Zhang, C., & Villanueva, L. E. (2023) · International Journal of Education and Humanities · doi:10.54097/ijeh.v11i2.13753 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
From crisis to opportunity: practices and technologies for a more effective post-COVID classroom
Regnier, J., Shafer, E., Sobiesk, E., Stave, N. J., & Haynes, M. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11929-9 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Other authors, such as (du Boulay, 2016; Mejia & Sargent, 2023; Zhong, 2023) have discussed these topics in greater detail.”
AI-Based Diagnostic Assessment System: Integrated With Knowledge Map in MOOCs
Lee, C.-A., Huang, N., Tzeng, J.-W., et al. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2023.3308338 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Some AI and cognitive science techniques can improve practitioners’ understanding of the nature of learning and teaching and enable them to build systems to help learners gain new skills or understand new concepts [2], [3].”
BackgroundAutomated Programming Exercise Generation in the Era of Large Language Models
Meißner, N., Speth, S., & Becker, S. (2024) · International Conference on Software Engineering Education and Training (CSEE&T) · doi:10.1109/cseet62301.2024.10662984 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Recently, the emergence of AI has ushered in new possibilities for automating educational content creation [5], [6].”
BackgroundSerdenia, J. R. C., Dumagay, A. H., Balasa, K. A., Capacio, E. A., & Lauzon, L. D. S. (2025) · LatIA · doi:10.62486/latia2025313 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cao, Y. J., Han, Z. J., Kong, R., Zhang, C., & Xie, Q. (2021) · Mathematical Problems in Engineering · doi:10.1155/2021/7227416 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“In this study, recognition seems to trigger memory and language responses, while ambiguity leads to requests for more information [3].”
BackgroundA Virtual Teaching Assistant for Personalized LearningPreprint
Benedetto, L., Cremonesi, P., & Parenti, M. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1902.09289 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Several works, such as [1, 3], discussed the possibility of using virtual teaching assistants (VTA) in order to reduce professors’ workloads: indeed, VTAs can make education much more scalable since students can solve most of their problems without asking the professors for help.”
BackgroundThe Rise of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Young, J. (2024) · International Journal of Innovative Research and Development · doi:10.24940/ijird/2024/v13/i2/feb24019 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Riding the Generative AI Tsunami: Addressing the Teaching and Learning Crisis in Higher Education
Tan, S., Rudolph, J., & Tan, S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54509-2_8 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Kabanda, M. (2025) · EIKI Journal of Effective Teaching Methods · doi:10.59652/jetm.v3i1.404 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The introduction of AI applications, including smart tutoring systems, personalized education models, and automated assessment processes, has significantly elevated students ’ academic performance, engagement, and scholarly success (Du Boulay, 2016; Owoc et al., 2021; Steele, 2023; Walter, 2024).”
Exploring AI-enabled Intelligent Tutoring System in the Vocational Studies Sector in UAE
Bhattacharya, P., & Nakhare, S. (2019) · HCT Information Technology Trends (ITT) · doi:10.1109/itt48889.2019.9075093 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“As new audiences of learners are exposed daily to ILEs through mobile devices and ubiquitous Internet access, significantly different challenges to the original goal of personalized instruction are presented [29, 31].”
BackgroundCreating A Neural Pedagogical Agent by Jointly Learning to Review and AssessPreprint
Lee, Y., Choi, Y., Cho, J., et al. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1906.10910 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“AI in education (AIEd) aims to leverage AI for creating personalized educational technologies [7, 9].”
BackgroundLongo, L., Brčić, M., Cabitza, F., Choi, J., Confalonieri, R., Ser, J. D., Guidotti, R., Hayashi, Y., Herrera, F., Holzinger, A., et al. (2023) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2310.19775 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“On the other hand, for instructors, AIED tools can act as intelligent teaching assistants [114], help them orchestrate the classroom [115], grade assessments [116], and answer student queries [117], minimizing students dropout [118].”
BackgroundThe Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Instructional Leadership
Hejres, S. (2022) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93921-2_36 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Lee, T. H., & Cho, V. (2025) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/00472395241266454 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Informal digital learning activities provides tangible bene fi ts, immediate language support, versatility, and personalized feedback, enhancing learners ’ perception of value and promoting engagement and achievement (Du Boulay, 2016).”
Data Privacy Protection in News Crowdfunding in the Era of Artificial Intelligence
Xu, Z., Xiang, D., & He, J. (2021) · Journal of Global Information Management · doi:10.4018/jgim.286760 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“There is also a diametrically opposed view in the academic community that the continuous development of artificial intelligence will bring disasters to mankind (Boulay, 2016).”
BackgroundBoughanzai, F., Ouhassan, Y., Majdoubi, R., & Hadjoudja, A. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13833-w · Cited by 13 · see citing works
RnkHEU: A Hybrid Feature Selection Method for Predicting Students’ Performance
Xiao, W. J., Ji, P., & Hu, J. (2021) · Scientific Programming · doi:10.1155/2021/1670593 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Intelligent and personalized education has developed rapidly with the development of big data, artificial intelligence, Internet of things (IoT), and other new generations of information technologies in recent year [1], which is one of the most important directions of sustainable development of education.”
BackgroundSingular Adaptive Multi-Role Intelligent Personal Assistant (SAM-IPA) for Human Computer Interaction
Mahmood, K., Rana, T. A., & Raza, A. R. (2018) · International Conference on Open Source Systems and Technologies (ICOSST) · doi:10.1109/icosst.2018.8632189 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“examples such as personal driving assistants [2], nutrition assistants [3] and classroom assistants [4].”
BackgroundA Generative Artificial Intelligence Based Tutor for Personalized Learning
Bondé, L. (2024) · IEEE SmartBlock4Africa · doi:10.1109/smartblock4africa61928.2024.10779525 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In a study conducted by Benedict [29], it is concluded that Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) when combined with other forms of teaching is very effective specially for students in STEM areas of study.”
The role of artificial intelligence in digital education
(2024) · Scientific Papers of Silesian University of Technology Organization and Management Series · doi:10.29119/1641-3466.2024.195.29 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“For instance, by using intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) to create personalized learning environments in place of a teacher shortage, the modeling capability of AI approaches has been methodically used to create reactive and adaptable tutorials (Du Boulay, 2016).”
Will AI Image Synthesis Technology Help Constructivist Education at The Online Art Museum?
Lee, S., Yun, J., Lee, S., et al. (2022) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems Extended Abstracts · doi:10.1145/3491101.3519788 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
ACCESSIBILITY, BIASES AND ETHICS IN CHATBOTS AND INTELLIGENT AGENTS FOR EDUCATION
y Restrepo, E. G., Baldassarre, M., & Boticario, J. G. (2019) · EDULEARN proceedings · doi:10.21125/edulearn.2019.2196 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Very recently, research has begun [21] but guidelines have not yet been defined or policies developed or laws enacted that address the specific ethical issues raised by the use of Artificial Intelligence in Education [22].”
BackgroundThe Future of Artificial Intelligence in Interactive Learning: Trends, Challenges, Opportunities
Alam, T. H. I., & Windiarti, I. S. (2025) · Mechanical Engineering, Science and Technology International Conference (MEST) · doi:10.3390/engproc2025084087 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- du Boulay, B.
- Venue
- IEEE Intelligent Systems
- Published
- 2016-11
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 76-81
- ISSN
- 1541-1672 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2550022464
- Semantic Scholar
- fa2a640db449c8a2f396d154b46cbedd1b1b3b6d
- Cited by
- 213
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 4
- FWCI
- 5.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- IEEE Intelligent Systems (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence in education, classroom assistants, blended learning, meta-analysis, learning and teaching
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